i 


ml: 


FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE  LIBRARY 

PHILADELPHIA 


Class.^:RO   Rook  Accession:2330:i 

REFERENCE 


1 

Digitized  by 

the  Internet  Archive 

in  2015 

https://archive.org/details/mechanicscompaniOOnich 


NICHOLSON'S 

MECHANIC'S  COMPANION. 


WATT  S  DOUBLE  ACTJNO  KN{}\N}\  /  Jee/^a^essy 


THE 


MECHANIC'S  COMPANION; 

OR,  THE 

ELEMENTS  AND  PEACTICE 


CARPENTRY,  JOINERY,  BRICKLAYINGl,  MASONRY, 
SLATING,   PLASTERING,  PAINTING, 
SMITHING,  AND  TURNING, 

COMPREHENDING  THE  LATEST  IMPROVEMENTS; 

AND  CONT.UNING  A  FTOL 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TOOLS 

BELONGING  TO  EACH  BRANCH  OF  BUSINESS,  WITH  COPIOUS  DIRECTIONS 
FOR  THEIR  USE  ; 

AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TERMS  USED  IN  EACH  ART; 

AND  AN 

;iiji'iidi5JiJ0'irJ(>jsr  ^ijoi  j^R^iiiiTjoAL  geometry. 


PETER  NinROLSON. 


TO  WHICH  IS  ADDED 

AN  ESSAY  ON  THE  STEAM-ENGINE, 

ITS  MANAGEMENT,  USES,  &c. 


WITH  FORTY-SIX  ENGRAVINGS. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED  BY  F. 

1853. 


BELL. 


THE  GETTY  RESEARCH 
INSTITUTE  LIBRAaY 


PREFACE. 


MORE  than  a  ceiitury  has  elapsed  since  an  in- 
genious and  useful  work  on  the  Arts  connected 
with  Building  was  published  under  the  title  of 
Mechanical  Exercises,  by  the  celebrated  Joseph 
Moxon:  that  it  was  both  useful  and  popular  the 
various  editions  t  estify,  and  at  this  time  it  is  become 
scarce  and  rarely  to  be  met  with.  I*  can  be  no 
disparagement  to  its  ingenious  author,  to  say  that 
the  progress  of  science,  and  the  changes  in  matters 
of  art  have  rendered  the  work  obsolete  and  useless. 
It  treated  on  Smithing,  Joinery,  Carpentry,  Turning, 
Bricklaying,  and  Dialling. 

I  have  followed  the  excellent  plan  of  Moxon  and 
treated  each  art  distinctly :  I  have  first  described  the 
several  tools  belonging  to  each  branch  of  business, 
next  the  methods  of  performing  the  variouf^  manual 


vi  PREFACE. 

operations  or  exercises,  to  which  they  are  applicable, 
these  are  further  illustrated  and  explained  by  nume- 
rous plates :  the  descriptions  are  made  as  plain  and 
familiar  as  possible ;  and  there  are  few  operations 
but  will  be  found  fully  and  clearly  explained :  finally 
to  each  is  added  an  Index  and  extensive  Glossary  of 
terms  used  by  workmen  in  each  art,  with  references 
also  to  the  plates :  and  it  has  been  my  endeavour 
that  the  description  with  its  definition  should  be 
clear,  and  show  the  connection  between  the  science 
and  the  art,  thereby  producing  a  pleasing  and  lasting 
effect  upon  the  mind. 

The  arts  treated  of  are  as  follow:  Carpentry, 
Joinery,  Bricklaying,  Masonry,  Slating,  Plaster- 
ing, Painting,  Smithing,  and  Turning,  the  whole 
preceded  by  a  slight  introduction  to  Practical 
Geometry,  and  illustrated  by  forty  copper-plates. 

These  exercises  commence  with  those  arts  which 
work  in  wood,  namely,  Carpentry  and  Joinery  which 
are  much  alike  in  their  tools  and  modes  of  working  : 
then  comes  Bricklaying,  which  with  Carpentry  are 
certainly  the  most  essential  of  all  in  the  construction 
of  a  building. 


\ 


PREFACE.  vii 

Masonry  and  Bricklaying  are  in  reality  branches 
of  the  same  art,  and  both  founded  upon  principles 
truly  Geometrical,  yet  I  have  given  the  precedence 
to  Bricklaying,  because  it  is  of  the  most  general  use 
in  this  country;  yet  it  is  generally  admitted,  thai 
Masonry  is  the  more  dignified  art  of  the  two,  or 
indeed  of  all  the  arts  concerned  in  the  formation  of 
an  edifice.  On  that  difficult  and  intricate  subject, 
the  Theory  of  Arches,  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a 
familiar,  and  I  hope  a  satisfactory  illustration. 

Slating  comes  next  to  cover  in  the  building:  then 
Plastering,  which  is  used  in  the  finishing  of  buildings, 
and  furnishes  the  interior  with  elegant  decora- 
tions, and  conduces  both  to  the  health  and  comfort 
of  the  inhabitants :  Painting  is  not  less  useful  than 
ornamental;  it  adds  to  the  elegance  of  buildings, 
and  tends  to  the  preservation  of  the  materials, 
whether  wood  or  plaster. 

Smithing  or  Smithry  is  extensively  useful  in  almost 
every  department  of  art  as  well  as  building;  by  it 
are  made  the  tools  which  perform  all  the  operations 
of  the  before  mentioned  arts,  and  therefore,  though 
last,  should  not  be  least  in  our  esteem.    The  use  of 


viii  PREFACE. 

iron  has  also  of  late  years  been  very  much  extended ; 
in  wheels  for  machinery,  Iron  Bridges,  Rail  roads, 
Boats,  Roofs,  Floors,  and  various  other  articles  not 
necessary  to  enumerate  here. 

Turning  is  a  curious  Mechanical  Exercise,  and 
though  not  absolutely  necessary  in  building,  may  be 
employed  with  advantage  in  many  of  its  decorations. 
In  this  article  I  have  given  a  legitimate  definition  of 
elliptic  turning,  by  which,  its  principles  are  deduced 
to  be  that  of  the  ellipsegraph  or  common  trammel, 
and  this  without  entering  into  further  demonstration. 
This  art  is  illustrated  by  plates,  showing  the  princi- 
ples of  the  machines,  as  well  as  by  views  of  the 
machines  and  tools 

As  the  practice  of  the  arts  here  treated  of,  is 
founded  in  Geometry,  and  as  the  descriptions  ot 
the  materials  and  of  the  tools  may  be  referred  to  the 
several  figures  of  that  science,  I  have  prefixed  to 
the  work  such  definitions  as  are  necessary  to  the 
comprehension  of  any  drawing  or  design,  which  is 
to  be  executed,  accompanied  by  many  useful  pro- 
blems, which  will  enable  the  mechanic  to  understand 
the  configuration  of  its  several  parts  in  practice. 


PREFACE.  ix 

and  to  perform  many  useful  problems  upon  true 
scientific  principles.  The  problems  for  setting  out 
work  upon  the  ground,  and  those  for  reducing 
drawings  to  any  scale  or  proportion,  even  without 
knowing  the  scale  of  the  original  drawing,  will  be 
found  interesting,  and  very  useful  in  practice. 

This  work,  which  treats  of  the  first  rudiments  of 
practice,  will  be  found  particularly  interesting  and 
useful  to  gentlemen  who  practise,  or  are  fond  of  the 
mechanical  exercises,  and  to  young  men  or  appren- 
tices in  any  of  the  professions,  though,  on  some 
occasions,  the  older  workmen  may  be  benefitted 
by  a  perusal.  The  terms  introduced  are  those  in 
general  use  amongst  workmen  in  London :  and  on 
this  account  it  will  be  of  essential  service  to  young 
men  coming  to  the  metropolis.  An  art  cannot  be 
taught  but  by  its  proper  terms.  Other  branches  of 
art  might  have  been  introduced  into  this  work,  but 
those  here  treated  of  are  intimately  connected  with 
each  other,  and  have  a  natural  affinity,  and  will,  it  is 
presumed,  form  upon  the  whole,  a  very  interesting 
work  to  young  mechanics  ;  those  who  wish  for  fur- 
ther information  in  the  building  art,  and  particularly 

B 


X  PREFACE. 

on  what  relates  to  Geometrical  Construction,  may 
consult  my  other  publications  on  Practical  Carpentry. 

Every  art  is  improved  by  the  emulation  of  its 
competitors :  it  is  therefore  the  ardent  hope  of  the 
author  that  the  reader  may  not  be  disappointed  of 
meeting  with  abundance  of  that  information  which 
his  mind  may  be  desirous  to  obtain. 


PETER  NICHOLSON. 


PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY. 


GEOMETRY  is  the  science  of  extension  and  magnitude :  by 
Geometry  the  various  angles  of  a  building  and  the  position  of  its 
sides  are  determined,  as  a  square,  a  cube,  a  triangle,  &;c. :  Boards 
and  all  Tools  used  by  the  Carpenter  and  Joiner  are  geometrical 
constructions :  by  Geometry  all  kinds  of  roofs  and  various  other 
things  laying  in  oblique  angles  are  determined  :  the  proper  con- 
struction of  all  sorts  of  arches  and  groins  depend  entirely  upon 
the  principles  of  Geometry.  I  have,  therefore,  prefaced  this  work 
with  an  explanation  and  definition  of  such  geometrical  figures  as 
will  frequently  occur  in  carrying  on  of  works,  and  which  are 
therefore  necessary  to  be  well  known  by  all  artizans  and  workmen, 
as  well  as  by  those  who  may  superintend  them :  this  slight  in- 
troduction to  Geometry  will  also  be  useful  to  all  persons  who 
wish  to  understand  the  practice  and  descriptions  of  the  handy- 
works  herein  explained. 

Geometry  is  the  science  of  extension,  and  magnitude,  and 
consists  of  theory  and  practice. 

The  theoretical  part  is  founded  upon  the  reasoning  of  self- 
evident  principles  ;  it  demonstrates  the  construction,  and  shows 
the  properties  of  regularly  defined  figures.  The  theory  is  the 
foundation  of  the  practical  part ;  and  without  a  knowledge  of  it, 
no  invention  to  any  degree  certain  can  be  made.  The  use  of 
Geometry  is  not  confined  only  to  speculative  truths  in  Mathematics. 


l2 


GEOMETRY. 


but  the  operations  of  mechanical  arts  owe  their  perfection  to  it ; 
drawing  and  setting  out  every  description  of  work,  are  entirely 
dependent  upon  it. 


DEFINITIONS. 

1.  A  point  is  that  which  has  position,  but  not  magnitude. 

2.  A  line  is  the  trace  of  a  point,  or  that  which  would  be 
described  by  the  progressive  motion  of  a  point,  and  consequently 
has  length  only. 

3.  A  superfices  has  length  and  breadth. 

4.  A  solid  is  a  figure  of  three  dimensions,  having  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness.  Hence  surfaces  are  extremities  of  solids, 
and  lines  the  extremities  of  surfaces,  and  points  the  extremities  ot 
lines. 

If  two  lines  will  always  coincide,  however  applied,  when  any 
two  points  in  the  one  coincides  w^ith  the  two  points  in  the  other, 
the  two  lines  are  called  straight  lines,  or  otherwise  right  lines. 

A  curve  continually  changes  its  direction  between  its  extreme 
points,  or  has  no  part  straight. 

Parallel  lines  are  always  at  the  same  distance,  and  will  never 
meet,  though  ever  so  far  produced.  Oblique  right  lines  change 
their  distance,  and  would  meet  if  produced. 

One  line  is  perpendicular  to  another,  when  it  inclines  no  more 
to  one  side  than  another. 

A  straight  line  is  a  tangent  to  a  circle,  when  it  touches  the 
circle  without  cutting  when  both  are  produced. 

An  angle  is  the  inclination  of  two  lines  towards  one  another  in 
the  same  plane,  meeting  in  a  point. 

Angles  are  either  right,  acute,  or  oblique. 

A  right  angle  is  that  which  is  made  by  one  line  perpendicular 
to  another,  or  when  the  angles  on  each  side  are  equal. 

An  acute  angle  is  less  than  a  right  angle. 

An  obtuse  angle  is  greater  than  a  right  angle. 


GEOMETRY. 


13 


A  plane  is  a  surface  with  which  a  straight  Hne  will  every  where 
coincide  :  and  is  otherwise  called  a  straight  surface. 

Plane  figures,  bounded  by  right  lines,  have  names  according  to 
the  number  of  their  sides,  or  of  their  angles,  for  they  have  as 
many  sides  as  angles  :  the  least  number  is  three. 

An  equilateral  triangle  is  that  whose  three  sides  are  equal. 

An  isosceles  triangle  has  only  two  sides  unequal. 

A  scalene  triangle  has  all  sides  unequal. 

A  right-angle  triangle  has  only  one  right  angle. 

Other  triangles  are  oblique-angled,  and  are  either  obtuse  or  acute. 

An  acute-angled  triangle  has  all  its  angles  acute. 

An  obtuse-angled  triangle  has  one  obtuse  angle. 

A  figure  of  four  sides,  or  angles,  is  called  a  quadrilateral,  or 
quadrangle. 

A  parallelogram  is  a  quadrilateral,  which  has  both  pairs  of  its 
opposite  sides  parallel,  and  takes  the  following  particular  names: 

A  rectangle  is  a  parallelogram,  having  all  its  angjes  right  ones. 

A  square  is  an  equilateral  rectangle,  having  all  its  sides  equal, 
and  all  its  angles  right  ones. 

A  rhombus  is  an  equilateral  parallelogram  whose  angles  arc 
oblique. 

A  rhomboid  is  an  oblique-angled  parallelogram,  and  its  opposite 
sides  only  are  equal. 

A  trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral,  M'hich  has  neither  pair  of  its 
sides  parallel. 

A  trapezoid  hath  only  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  parallel. 

Plane  figures  having  more  than  four  sides,  are  in  general  called 
polygons,  and  receive  other  particular  names  according  to  the 
number  of  their  sides  or  angles. 

A  pentagon  is  a  polygon  of  five  sides,  a  hexagon  of  six  sides, 
a  heptagon  seven,  an  octagon  eight,  an  eneagon  nine,  a  decagon 
ten,  an  undecagon  eleven,  and  a  dodecagon  twelve  sides. 

A  regular  polygon  has  all  its  sides,  and  its  angles  equal ;  and 
if  they  are  not  equal,  the  polygon  is  irregular. 

An  equilateral  triangle  is  also  a  regular  figure  of  three  sides, 


GEOMETRY. 


and  a  square  is  one  of  the  four ;  the  former  being  called  a  trigon, 
and  the  latter  a  tetragon. 

A  circle  is  a  plane  figure,  bounded  by  a  curve  line,  called  the 
circumference,  which  is  every  where  equi-distant,  from  a  certain 
point  within,  called  its  centre. 

The  radius  of  a  circle  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference. 

A  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  right  line,  drawn  through  the  centre 
terminating  on  both  sides  of  the  circumference 

An  arc  of  a  circle  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

A  chord  is  a  right  line  joining  the  extremities  of  an  arc. 

A  segment  is  any  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  an  arc  and  its  chord. 

A  semicircle  is  half  a  circle,  or  a  segment  cut  off  by  the  diameter. 

A  sector,  is  any  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  an  arc,  and  two 
radii,  drawn  to  its  extremities, 

A  quadrant,  or  quarter  of  a  circle,  is  a  sector  having  a  quarter 
part  of  the  circumference  for  its  arc,  and  the  two  radii  perpendi- 
cular  to  each  other. 

The  height  or  altitude  of  any  figure  is  a  perpendicular,  let  fall 
from  an  angle  or  its  vertex,  to  the  opposite  side,  called  the  base. 

The  measure  of  any  right  lined  angle,  is  an  arc  of  any  circle 
contained  between  the  two  lines  wh'ch  form  the  angle,  the  angular 
point  being  the  centre. 

A  solid  is  said  to  be  cut  by  a  plane,  when  it  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  of  which  the  common  surface  of  separation  is  a  plane,  and 
this  plane  is  called  a  section. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  SOLIDS. 

A  prism  is  a  solid,  the  ends  of  which  are  similar,  and  equal 
parallel  planes,  and  the  sides  parallel  grams. 

If  the  ends  of  the  prism  are  perpendicular  to  the  sides,  the  prism 
\^  called  a  right  prism. 


GEOMETRY. 


15 


If  the  ends  of  the  prism  are  oblique  to  the  sides,  the  prism  is 

called  an  oblique  prism. 

If  the  ends  and  sides  are  equal  squares,  the  prism  is  called  a  cube. 
If  the  base  or  ends  are  parallelograms,  the  solid  is  called  a 

parallelepiped. 

If  the  bases  and  sides  are  rectangles,  the  prism  is  called  a 
rectangular  prism. 

If  the  ends  are  circles,  the  prism  is  called  a  cylinder. 

If  the  ends  or  bases  are  ellipsis,  the  prism  is  called  a  cylindroid. 

A  solid,  standing  upon  any  plane  figure  for  its  base,  the  sides  of 
which  are  plane  triangles,  meeting  in  one  point,  is  called  a  pyramid. 

The  solid  is  denominated  from  its  base,  as  a  triangular  pyramid 
is  one  upon  a  triangular  base,  a  square  pyramid  one  upon  a 
square  base,  &;c<, 

If  the  base  is  a  circle  or  an  ellipsis,  then  the  pyramid  is  called 
a  cone. 

If  a  solid  be  terminated  by  two  dissimilar  parallel  planes  as 
ends,  and  the  remaining  surfaces  joining  the  ends  be  also  planes, 
the  solid  is  called  a  prismoid. 

If  a  part  of  a  pyramid  next  to  the  vertex  be  cut  off  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  base,  the  portion  of  the  pyramid  contained  between 
the  cutting  plane  and  the  base  is  called  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid. 

A  solid,  the  base  of  which  is  a  rectangle,  the  four  sides  joining 
the  base  plane  surfaces,  and  two  opposite  ones  meet  in  a  line 
parallel  to  the  base,  is  called  a  cuneus  or  wedge. 

A  solid  terminated  by  a  surface  which  is  every  where  equally 
distant,  from  a  certain  point  within  it,  is  called  a  sphere  or  globe. 

If  a  sphere  be  cut  by  any  two  planes,  the  portion  contained 
between  the  planes  is  called  a  zone,  and  each  of  the  parts  con- 
tained by  a  plane  and  the  curved  surface  is  called  a  segment. 

If  a  semi-ellipsis,  having  an  axis  for  its  diameter,  be  revolved 
round  this  axis  until  it  come  to  the  place  whence  the  motion 
began,  the  solid  formed  by  the  circumvolution  is>'  called  a  spheroid. 

If  the  spheroid  be  generated  round  the  gre&ter  axis,  the  solid 
is  called  an  oblong  spheroid. 


16 


GEOMETRY. 


If  the  solid  be  generated  round  the  lesser  axis,  the  solid  is 
called  an  oblate  spheroid. 

A  solid  of  any  of  the  above  structures,  hollow  within,  so  as 
to  contain  a  solid  of  the  same  structure,  is  called  a  hollow  solid. 


PLATE  I. 

A  an  acute  angle. 

B  two  lines  inclined,  and  would  meet  and  form  an  angle  il 
produced. 

C  a  perpendicular  c  cZ  is  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  a  b,  and 
the  angles  c  d     c  b  d  are  both  right  angles. 

D  several  angles  meeting  at  a  point ;  when  this  is  the  case, 
each  is  denoted  by  three  letters,  the  right  angle  is  the  criterion  of 
judging  of  every  other  angle ;  d  b  c  is  a  right  angle,  a  6  c  an 
obtuse  angle,  e  b  c  an  acute  angle. 

E  a  rglit  angle. 

F  an  .cute  angle,  being  less  than  a  right  angle 

G  an  obtuse  angle,  being  greater  than  a  right  angle. 

H,  I,  K,  L  triangles. 

H  an  equilateral  triangle  all  the  three  sides  a  b,  be,  c  a  being 
equal. 

I  an  isosceles  triangle,  a  b  and  b  c  being  only  equal. 
K  a  scalene  triangle,  all  the  sides  being  unequal. 
L  a  right  angled  triangle. 

M,  N,  O,  P,  Q,  R  quadrilaterals  or  quadrangles,  M  N  O  P 
are  parallelograms;  M  N  rectangles  ;  M  an  oblong;  N  a  square; 
O  a  rhomboid;  P  a  rhombus;  Qa  trapezium;  and  R  a  trapezoid. 
T,  U,V  polygons,  T  a  pentagon,  U  a  hexagon,  and  V  an  octagon 
W  a  circle,  a  the  centre,  b  a  point  in  the  circumference,  aba. 
radius. 

X  a  circle,  c  the  centre,  d  and  e  points  in  the  circumference, 
f/ eaadiameter,  or  a  chord  passing  through  the  centre. 


GEOMETRY.  17 

Y  a  circle,  d  and  e  points  in  the  circumference,  tZ  e  a  chord  ; 
d  /  e  the  less  segment,  -mA  d  g  e  the  greater. 

A  1,  B  1  segments,  ach.ach  arcs,  ah,  ah  chords;  B  1  a 
semicircle. 

C  1,  D  1  sectors,  D  1  a  quadrant,  c  a,ch  radii  at  right  angles, 
a  h  arc. 

E  1  a  triangle,  ah,  h  d,  da  the  sides,  a  h  the  base,  d  c  a 
perpendicular  to  the  base  called  the  altitude. 


PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1,  2,  3,  4  are  all  parallelopipeds  and  consist  of  six  sides  ; 
when  two  opposite  sides  are  perpendicular  to  the  other  four,  the 
parallelopiped  is  denominated  a  rectangular  prism,  and  if  the  four 
sides  be  equal  rectangles,  the  prism  is  called  a  square  prism  as 
fig.  1,2;  and  if  all  the  four  sides  are  equal  squares,  the  prism  is 
called  a  cube,  as  fig.  1.  The  reason  why  called  a  parallelopiped 
is  because  each  pair  of  opposite  sides  are  parallel  planes.  The 
structure  of  a  rectangular  prism  occurs  more  frequently  in  the 
practice  of  carpentry  and  joinery  than  any  other  form  whatever, 
ill  timbers  and  boards  for  the  use  of  building  are  cut  into  this 
form.    Doors,  shutters,  &;c.  are  thin  rectangular  prisms,  as  fig.  4. 

Fig.  5  is  a  cylinder. 

Fig.  6  a  hollow  cylinder. 

Fig.  7  the  section  of  a  cylinder  cut  oflT  by  a  plane  parallel  to 
the  axis. 

Fig.  8  the  sector  of  a  cylinder  contained  by  two  planes  forming 
an  angle,  and  the  curved  surface  of  the  cylinder;  the  line  of  con- 
course of  the  planes  being  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Fig.  9  a  prismoid  ;  the  ends  of  chisels  which  contain  the 
cutting  part  is  of  this  form. 

Fig.  10  a  wedge;  the  end  of  a  chisel  contained  by  the  face 
and  tb^  basil  are  of  this  f)rni 


18 


GEOMETRY. 


Fig,  11a  square  pyramid. 

Fig.  12  an  octagonal  pyramid  inverted 

Fig.  13  a  cone. 

Fig.  14  inverted  liollow  cone. 

Fig.  15  a  sphere. 

Fig.  16  a  spheroid. 

Pbob.  I.   From  a  given  point  in  a  given  straight  line,  to  erect  a 
perpendicular.    Pl.  3.  Fig.  i. 

Let  F  F  be  the  given  straight  line,  and  C  the  given  point.  Take 
any  two  equal  distances  C  a  and  C  6  on  each  side  of  the  point 
iC :  from  the  points  a  and  b  with  any  equal  radii  greater  than 
C  a  or  C  6,  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  in  D.  Draw  D  C 
and  it  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 


Pkob.  II.   To  let  fall  a  perpendicular  from  a  given  point  to  a  given 
straight  line.    Pl.  3.    Fig.  2. 

Let  C  be  the  given  point  and  E  F  the  given  straight  line.  From 
the  point  C  describe  an  arc  cutttng  E  F  at  a  and  h.  With  any 
equal  radii  greater  than  the  half  of  a  6  describe  arcs  cutting  each 
other  at  D.    Draw  C  D  and  it  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 


pROB.  III.    When  the  point  is  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  line. 
Metlwd first,  Pl.  3.  Fig.  3. 

Let  C  be  the  given  point,  E  F  the  given  line.  In  E  F  take 
any  point  a  and  with  the  radius  a  C  describe  an  arc  C  D. 
Take  any  other  point  5  in  E  F,  and  with  the  distance  b  C  describe 
an  arc,  cutting  the  arc  C  D,  at  C  and  D,  draw  C  D  and  it  is  the 
perpendicular  required 


GEOMETRY. 


10 


Prob.  IV.   To  draw  a  perpendicular  from  a  point  at  the  end  of  a 
line,    Pl.  3.  Fig.  4. 

Let  E  F  be  the  given  straight  line,  and  F  the  given  point. 
Take  any  point  a  above  the  line  and  with  the  radius  a  C  describe 
an  arc  C  F  6  cutting  E  F  at  6.  Draw  h  aC;  then  draw  C  F 
and  it  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 


Prob.  v.   To  bisect  a  straight  line,     Pl.  3.  Fig.  5. 

Let  E  F  be  the  given  straight  line.  From  E  and  F  as  centres, 
and  with  any  distance  greater  than  the  half  of  E  F  as  radii, 
describe  two  arcs  cutting  each  other  at  A  and  B.  Draw  A  B 
cutting  E  F  at  C,  then  E  F  is  bisected  in  C. 


Prob.  vi.   To  bisect  a  given  angle,  Pl.  3.  Fig.  C. 

Let  E  F  G  be  the  given  angle.  From  the  point  F  describe  an 
arc  a  b  cutting  F  E  and  F  G  at  the  points  a  and  b,  also  from  the 
points  a  and  b,  with  the  same  radius,  or  any  other  equal  radii, 
describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  in  C.  Draw  F  C  and  it  will  be- 
sect  the  angle  as  required.  That  is,  the  angle  E  F  G  is  divided 
into  two  equal  angles  E  F  C  and  C  F  G. 

Prob.  vii.  To  make  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle,  Pl.  3. 
Fig.  7  and  8. 

Let  E  F  G  be  the  given  angle.    Draw  the  straight  line  H  I 
From  the  point  F  describe  an  arc  a  h  cutting  E  F  and  F  G  at 
the  points  a  and  h.    From  H  as  a  centre,  with  the  same  radius, 
describe  an  arc  c  i  cutting  H  I  at  c.    Make  c  d  equal  to  a  b. 
Draw     dG  and  the  angle  I  H  G  is  equal  to  E  F  G.  as  required. 


20  GEOMETRY. 

Prob.  VIII.    Through  a  given  point  to  draw  a  line  'parallel  to  a 
given  right  line.  Pl.  3.  Fig.  9. 

Let  A  B  be  the  given  right  line,  and  D  the  given  point.  Draw 
any  right  Hne  DA;  in  A  B  take  any  point  c  and  make  the  angle 
B  c  E  equal  to  the  angle  BAD,  make  c  E  equal  to  A  D  ;  draw 
D  E,  then  D  E  is  parallel  to  A  B. 


Prob.  ix.   To  draw  a  line  parallel  to  another  line  at  a  given  distance. 
Pl.  3.  Fig.  10. 

Let  A  B  be  the  given  right  line,  C  the  given  distance  from  any 
two  points  in  A  B,  as  A  and  B  as  centres  describe  two  arcs  d\{  e 
and  fig'  Draw  II  I  to  touch  the  arcs  at  the  points  H  and  I ; 
and  H  I  is  parallel  to  A  B  and  at  a  given  distance  C. 


Pkob.  X.  Three  straight  lines,  of  which  any  two  are  greater  than 
the  third,  being  given  to  describe  a  triangle,  the  sides  of  which  will 
be  respectively  equal  to  the  three  given  lines,    Pl.  3.  Fig.  IL 

Let  the  three  straight  lines  be  A  B  C  :  Make  D  E  equal  to  C, 
from  D  as  a  centre  with  the  distance  of  B  describe  an  arc  at  F. 
From  E  as  a  centre  with  the  distance  A  describe  another  arc, 
cutting  the  former  at  F.  Join  F  D  and  F  E  ;  and  D  E  F  is  the 
triangle  required. 


Prob.  xi.  The  side  of  an  equilateral  triangle  being  given  to  describe 
the  triangle.    Pl.  4.  Fig.  1. 

Let  A  be  the  given  side.  Place  A  upon  any  straight  line  B  C 
and  with  the  same  extent  from  the  points  B  and  C  as  centres 


i 


GEOMETRY. 


21 


describe  arcs,  cutting  each  other  in  D.  Join  D  B  and  D  C,  and 
B  C  D  is  the  equilateral  triangle  required. 

Pros.  xii.   To  describe  a  square,  the  sides  of  which  shall  he  equal 
to  a  given  right  line,    Pl.  4.  Fig.  2. 

Let  A  be  the  given  right  line,  which  place  upon  any  straight 
line  B  C.  Make  the  angle  C  B  E  a  right  angle,  and  B  E  equal 
to  B  C  through  the  points  E  and  C.  Draw  E  D  and  D  C  paral- 
lei  to  B  C,  and  B  E,  and  B  C  D  E  is  the  square  required. 


Prob.  XIII.  To  describe  a  hexagon,  the  sides  of  which  shall  be 
equal  to  a  given  line,    Pl.  4.  Fig.  3. 

Let  k  be  the  given  line,  which  place  upon  any  straight  line 
B  C.  From  the  points  B  and  C,  with  the  distance  B  C  describe 
arcs  cutting  each  other  at  L  With  the  distance  I  B  or  I  C 
describe  the  circle  B  C  D  E  F  G,  then  apply  the  side  B  C  succes- 
sively  to  the  circumference  as  chords,  the  circumference  will  be 
divided  into  equal  parts,  and  the  hexagon  formed  as  required. 


pROB.  XIV.   To  describe  any  regular  polygmi,  the  sides  of  which 
shall  be  equal  to  a  given  line,    Pl.  4.  Fig.  4. 

Set  the  given  line  upon  any  other  convenient  line,  and  with  a 
radius  equal  to  the  given  line,  describe  a  semicircle  upon  this  line. 
Divide  the  semicircle  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  are  to  be  sides 
in  the  pol3^gon  ;  then  the  half  of  the  diameter  is  one  side  of  the  po- 
lygon, through  the  centre  of  the  semicircle,  and  through  the 
second  division  from  the  other  end  of  the  diameter  draw  another 
right  line,  which  will  form  an  adjoining  side  to  the  former ;  bisect 


22 


GEOMETRY. 


each  of  these  adjoining  sides  by  perpendiculars,  and  the  meeting 
of  these  perpendiculars  will  give  the  centre  of  a  circle,  which  will 
contain  the  straight  line  given. 

Fig.  4  is  an  example  of  a  pentagon. 

Fig.  5  is  an  example  of  a  hexagon. 

Fig.  6  is  an  example  of  an  eneagoh. 


Prob.  XV.  To  inscribe  a  polygon  in  a  given  circle,  Pl.  4.  Fig.  7,  8 

Draw  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  another  diameter  at  right 
^  angles,  produce  this  last  diameter  so  that  the  part  produced  shall 
be  three  quarters  of  the  radius ;  divide  the  first  diameter  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  the  polygon  is  to  consist  of  sides :  through 
the  second  division,  and  the  extremity  of  the  part  produced  of  the 
other  diameter,  draw  a  line  to  cut  the  circumference  without 
the  points,  the  chord  of  the  arc  intercepted  between  the  point 
in  the  circumference  thus  found  and  the  diameter,  applied 
successively  to  the  arc,  as  other  chords  will  form  the  polygon 
required. 

Fig.  7  example  in  a  pentagon,  Fig.  8  example  in  an  oc- 
tagon. 


Prob.  xvi.  A  square  being  given  to  form  an  octagon,  of  which  four 
of  the  sides  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  shall  be  common  to  the 
middle  parts  of  the  sides  of  the  square,    Pl.  4.  Fig.  9. 

Let  I  G  K  L  be  the  square  given.  Draw  the  diagonals  I  K 
and  G  L  cutting  each  other  at  m ;  from  the  centres  I,  G,  K,  L 
and  with  the  radius  I  m,  or  G  m,  &;c.  describe  arcs  G  m  B,  A 

D,  C     F,  E  m  H  cutting  the  sides  of  the  square,  at  A,  B,  C,  D, 

E,  F,  G,  H ;  join  B  C,  D  E,  F  G,  H  A  and  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H 
will  be  the  polygon  as  required. 


GEOMETRY. 


23 


Pbob.  XVII.  In  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  a  hexagon  or  an  equaliieral, 
Pl.  4.  Fig.  10. 

Apply  the  radius  successively  as  chords  A  B,  B  C,  C  D, 
D  E,  E  F,  FA,  and  A  B  C  D  E  F  A  will  be  the  hexagon. 

From  A  with  the  radius  A  B  or  A  F  describe  the  arc  B  F. 
Join  the  chord  B  F.  Make  B  D  equal  to  B  F;  and  join  D  F 
and  B  F  D  is  the  equilateral  triangle  required. 


Prob.  xvin.  In  a  given  circle  io  inscribe  a  square  or  an  octagon. 
Pl.  4.  Fig.  11. 

Let  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  A  be  the  circle.  Draw  the  diameters 
A  E  and  C  G  at  right  angles.  Join  A  C,  C  E,  E  G,  G  A  and 
A  C  E  G  A  will  be  the  square  required. 

Bisect  any  two  adjacent  angles  by  diameters,  and  the  whole 
circumference  will  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  A  B,  B  C, 
C  D,  D  E,  E  F,  F  G,  G  H,  H  A  ;  the  chords  of  which  being 
joined  will  form  the  octagon  ABC  D  E  F  G  H  A  as  re- 
quired. 


Prob.  xix.    In  a  given  circle  io  inscribe  a  jpentagon,    Pl.  4. 

Fig.  12. 

Let  A  B  C  D  E  A  be  the  given  circle.  Draw  the  diameters 
A  /and  g  h  <xX.  right  angles,  cutting  each  other  in  the  centre  at  I: 
bisect  g  I  at  i:  from  i  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  i  A,  describe 
an  arc  A  k  cutting  g  h  vit  k:  from  A  as  a  centre,  with  A  A;  as  a 
radius,  describe  an  arc  k  E,  cutting  the  circumference  at  E  :  join 
A  E,  then  apply  A  E  successively  to  the  circumference  as  chords, 
and  A  B  C  D  E  will  be  the  pentagon  required. 


24  (H^OMETRY. 

PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  PERFORMED  ON  THE 
GROUND. 

Prob.  I.   To  erect  a  perpendicular  from  a  given  point  C  to  a  rigJU 
line  A  B,  by  means  of  a  Tape  or  String.    Pl.  5.  Fig.  i. 

Take  two  equal  distances  C  A  and  C  B,  extend  the  tape  to  any 
length  greater  than  A  B,  double  it,  put  a  pin  in  the  meeting,  open 
out  the  tape ;  place  one  end  of  the  double  distance,  or  the  ring  al 
A,  and  let  another  person  hold  the  other  end  at  B,  and  a  third 
person  take  hold  of  the  string  at  the  pin,  and  stretch  it  out  to  D, 
then  the  stake  at  D  and  the  point  C  will  be  in  a  perpendicular  to  * 
A  B.  To  illustrate  this,  suppose  C  A,  C  B  each  ten  feet,  then  A 
B  is  twenty  feet ;  you  may  extend  the  line  to  forty  feet,  which 
being  doubled,  the  division  will  fall  upon  twenty  feet,  let  the  ring 
be  put  upon  A,  the  divison  of  forty  upon  B;  let  the  division  oJ 
twenty  feet  in  the  middle  of  the  line  be  extended  out  to  D,  while 
the  ends  A  and  B  are  held  fast :  then  drive  in  the  stake  D,  and  il 
will  give  the  point  whence  the  perpendicular  may  be  drawn  to 
C,  upon  the  right  line  A  B. 

N.  B.  Though  three  persons  are  mentioned  here,  one  may 
accomplish  the  business  by  sticking  an  arrow  in  at  A,  and  hooking 
the  ring  over  it ;  then  take  a  stake  with  two  cross  draughts,  and 
drive  it  in  at  B,  hook  the  line  at  forty  feet  round  two  of  the  cross 
draughts,  then  extend  the  middle  at  twenty  as  before. 


Prob.  II.   To  erect  a  perpendicular  at  or  near  the  end  of  a  right 
line,  A  B,  by  means  of  a  Tape,   Pl.  5.  Fig.  2. 

Take  any  distance  D  B  (say  ten  feet)  extend  the  tape  to  any 
greater  length,  (say  twenty  feet,)  fjisten  the  ring  at  D,  and  the  other 
end  (twenty)  at  B,  lay  hold  of  the  middle  (at  ten)  and  stretch  it  out 
to  C,  carry  the  end  of  the  taj^e  B  round  to  E,  until  the  point  F^  be 
in  a  straight  line  with  C  and  D,  keeping  C  and  D  fast,  and  the  string 


GEOMETRY. 


2o 


completely  stretched,  drive  in  a  stake  or  pin  at  E,  then  shall  the 
points  B  and  E  be  in  a  straight  line,  perpendicular  to  A  B  as 
required. 


PiiOB.  III.  Another  metJiod  hy  the  Tape,  Pl.  5.  Fig.  3. 

Suppose  the  perpendicular  erected  upon  B  C  from  B.  Take 
the  numbers  3,  4,  and  5,  or  any  multiple  of  these  numbers,  say, 
6,  8,  and  10;  then  6  and  8  make  14,  and  10  make  24;  make 
B  C  six  feet,  put  an  arrow  in  at  C,  on  which  hook  the  ring  of  the 
tape;  and  fasten  the  division  six  feet  at  B  and  twenty-four  feet 
again  at  C ;  lay  hold  of  the  line  on  the  division  fourteen  feet, 
which  carry  to  the  point  A,  until  both  parts  of  the  line  become 
stretched,  and  the  points  A  and  B  will  be  in  a  perpendicular  to 
BC. 


The  same  Figure, 

To  do  the  same  thing  by  means  of  a  jive  foot  rod.  Make 
E  c  three  feet,  with  four  feet;  and  the  end  of  the  rod  resting 
on  B,  describe  an  arc  at  A,  with  five  feet,  and  the  end  of  the 
rod  resting  on  C,  describe  another  arc  crossing  the  former  at 
A ;  then  shall  the  points  A  and  B  be  in  a  line  perpendicular 
to  B  C. 

Prob.  IV.   To  describe  the  segment  of  a  circle  to  any  length,  A  B 
and  perpendicular  height  C  D.   Pl.  5.  Fig.  4. 

Take  the  middle  of  A  B  at  C :  fix  the  angle  of  the  square  at 
C,  direct  the  outer  edge  of  the  stock  in  the  straight  line  A  B,  lay 
a  rule  upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade,  and  draw  the  perpendi- 
cular  D  C  F.    In  the  same  manner  take  the  middle  of  the  line 

D 


26 


GEOMETRY 


A  D  at  E,  and  draw  the  perpendicular  E  F,  the  meeting  F  of  the 
two  perpendiculars  will  give  the  centre  of  the  segment :  take  a 
slip  of  wood,  and  mark  the  distance  D  F  from  one  end,  put  a  brad- 
awl or  nail  through  the  rod  at  the  mark,  and  through  the  point  F, 
lay  hold  of  the  other  end  of  the  rod  at  D,  and  with  a  pencil  at  D, 
carry  it  round  from  A  to  B,  pressing  the  pencil  gently  to  the  plane, 
and  the  point  will  describe  the  arc^  B  D. 

N,  B.  Segments  of  circles  are  generally  described  upon  a  floor: 
but  when  this  cannot  be  conveniently  obtained,  a  temporary  rough 
boarding  is  laid,  which  will  be  sufficient  for  brick  or  stone  arches; 
but  if  the  arc  to  be  drawn  is  for  joinery,  and  where  different  pieces 
of  wood  are  to  befitted,  the  surface  would  require  to  be  traversed 
and  straightened  in  length  and  breadth. 

The  foregoing  method  may  be  readily  applied  where  the  space 
is  unlimited,  or  the  radius  of  a  moderate  length :  when  the  radius  is 
very  great,  so  that  a  rod  of  sufficient  length  cannot  be  obtained, 
and  where  there  is  sufficient  room,  a  wire  may  be  used  for  a 
radius  instead  of  a  string,  which  cannot  be  depended  upon  in  such 
cases,  being  liable  to  stretch  ;  but  if  you  have  an  arc  to  describe, 
and  are  confined  to  limits,  which  the  radius  would  exceed,  the 
most  eligible  method  will  be  as  follows : 

Fig.  5.  Let  A,  B,  C  be  any  three  points  whatever,  it  is  required 
to  draw  the  arc  of  a  circle  through  them  without  making  use  of  the 
centre. 

Prepare  two  rods,  each  having  one  of  its  edges  straight,  and 
each  at  least  equal  to  A  C  the  chord;  lay  the  edge  of  one  of  the 
rods  close  to  the  points  A  and  B,  having  one  end  at  B ;  lay 
the  straight  edge  of  the  other  rod  to  coincide  with  the  points  B 
and  C,  having  the  one  end  also  at  B ;  notch  and  fix  the  rods 
together  at  B,  and  to  keep  the  angle  invariable  nail  a  strip  F  G 
across  the  legs  B  D  and  B  H;  move  the  whole  round,  keeping  the 
edge  of  the  rod  B  D  close  upon  the  nail,  pin,  or  brad-awl  at  A,  and 
the  other  leg  B  E  close  to  the  nail,  pin,  or  brad-awl  at  C  ;  a  pencil 
placed  at  their  meeting  B  pressing  the  point  gently  to  the  surface 
will  describe  the  arc  required. 


\ 


W.  S.Z  nmard ,  Sc. 


GEOMETRY. 


27 


pROB.  V.   To  describe  a  semi-ellij)iic  arch  to  any  length  A  B  and 
height  C  D  with  a  pair  of  compasses,    Pl.  5.  Fig.  G. 

Take  the  height  C  D  and  apply  to  the  length  from  B  to  E  towards 
the  centre ;  divide  the  distance  E  C  into  three  equal  parts,  set  one 
of  them  towards  B  from  E  to  F.  Make  C  G  equal  to  C  F,  and 
with  the  distance  G  F  from  G  describe  a  small  arc  at  H,  and  with 
tlie  same  distance  from  F  describe  another  cutting  the  former  arc 
H.  Draw  H  G  I  and  H  F  K.  From  the  centre  H  with  the  dis- 
tance  H  D  describe  the  arc  I  K.  From  the  centre  G  with 
the  distance  G  I  describe  the  arc  I  A.  From  the  centre  F  with  the 
same  distance,  or  F  B  describe  the  arc  K  B,  then  A  I  D  K  B  will 
be  the  semi-ellipse  required. 

N.  B.  This  is  a  mere  representation,  and  cannot  be  true ;  for 
no  part  of  a  circle  is  to  be  found  in  the  mathematical  ellipse,  since 
the  curvature  is  continually  varying  from  one  axis  to  the  other.  It 
is  always  lame  at  the  junctions,  and  is  only  a  makeshift,  for  want  of 
better  means.  The  following  method  by  the  trammel  is  correct, 
being  derived  from  geometrical  principles. 

Fig.  7.  The  instrument  called  the  trammel,  consists  of  two  pieces 
of  wood  joined  together  at  right  angles,  with  agroovein  the  middle 
of  each;  the  trammel  rod  is  a  square  bar  with  three  points,  or  pins, 
made  exactly  to  fill  the  grooves,  and  to  slide  easily  in  them,  so  that 
two  of  the  pins  must  be  made  moveable,  and  to  be  always  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  third,  which  maybe  a  pencil  passing  through 
a  hole.  The  machine  is  thus  prepared  :  set  the  first  pin  from 
the  pencil  to  the  height,  and  the  second  from  the  pencil  to  half  the 
length,  then  put  the  pins  in  the  grooves,  which  being  fixed  upon 
the  axis,  move  the  point  B  round  from  A  to  B,  and  describe  the 
curve  A  B  C  D,  it  will  be  the  true  ellipse  required. 


Prob.  VI.  Any  three  straight  lines  being  given  to  find  a  fourth 
proportional,    Pl.  6.  Fig.  1. 

Let  C  A,  A  E  be  any  two  straight  lines  forming  an  angle. 


GEOMl^^rRY. 


Make  A  B  equal  to  the  first  of  the  given  lines,  A  C  equal  to  the 
second,  A  D  equal  to  the  third.  Join  B  D,  and  draw  C  E  parallel 
to  B  D,  cutting  A  E  produced  at  E.  Then  will  A  E,  be  a  fourth 
proportional  to  A  B,  A  C,  A  D,  or  A  B,  A  C,  A  D,  A  E. 


Pkob.  VII.    To  divide  a  line  in  the  same  proportion  as  another  is 
divided,    Pl.  6.  Fig.  2. 

Let  A  E  be  the  given  line,  divided  into  the  parts  A  B,  B  C, 
C  D,  D  E  and  A  1,  the  line  to  be  divided,  forming  any  angle 
with  A  B.  Join  E  I,  and  draw  B  F,  C  G,  and  D  H,  parallel  to 
E  I,  catting  A  1  at  F  G  H,  then  the  parts  A  F,  F  G,  G  H, 
H  I,  will  be  to  one  another,  or  to  the  whole  line  A  I,  as  the 
parts  A  B,  B  C,  C  D,  D  E,  are  to  one  another,  or  to  the  whole 
line  A  E. 


Prob.  VIII.  Any  distance  being  given  in  feet  and  inches^  of  a  part 
of  one  drawing  to  divide  a  given  length  of  a  similar  part  of 
another  drawing  into  feet  and  inches,  so  as  to  form  a  propor- 
tional scale,    Pl.  6.  Fig.  3. 

Let  A  B  represent  57  feet  2  inches,  the  length  of  one  drawing, 
the  part  between  40  and  A  being  7  feet  2  inches,  then  the  dis- 
tance between  40  and  B  will  contain  50  feet ;  and  let  C  B  be 
the  length  of  another  drawing,  either  of  greater  or  less  extent 
than  the  former,  it  is  required  to  find  the  scale  of  the  new  draw, 
ing.  Join  A  C  ;  draw  0,  0  :  10  10  :  20,  20  :  30,  30  :  40,  40, 
parallel  to  A  C,  cutting  C  B  in  0 :  10,  20,  30,  40  ;  then  the  dis- 
tance  of  every  two  adjacent  divisions  will  be  10  fee  of  the  new 
scale.  The  first  10  feet  may  be  sub-divided  into  feet,  by  divisions 
parallel  lines  in  the  same  manner,  and  by  this  means  the  scale  of 
a  new  drawing  may  be  found,  when  the  whole  length,  or  any  parr, 


GEOMETRY. 


29 


and  the  scale  of  the  original  drawing,  and  the  whole  length,  or  any 
similar  part  of  the  required  drawing  are  given. 


Prob.  IX.  A  drawing  being  given  without  a  scale  to  proportionate 
another,  having  the  dimension  or  extent  of  some  part  of  the  intended 
drawing.    Pl.  6.  Fig.  4. 

Draw  two  lines  A  B,  B  C,  forming  any  angle  ABC  with  each 
other,  as  before,  from  the  angular  point ;  on  one  of  the  lines  B  C 
set  off  the  extent  of  the  part  of  the  required  drawing,  from  B  to  C ; 
from  the  same  point  B  set  the  extent  of  the  corresponding  part  of 
the  other  drawing,  from  B  to  A  on  the  other  line,  and  join  A  C. 
Make  A  B  a  scale  of  any  number  of  divisions,  as  five,  divide  B  C 
in  the  same  proportion;  sub-divide  one  of  the  extreme  parts  of  A 
B  into  tentlis,  find  the  proportionate  tenth  of  the  corresponding  part 
of  B  C  ;  then  will  A  B  be  a  scale  for  the  original  drawing,  and 
B  C  a  corresponding  scale  for  the  required  drawing. 


Example^  Figures  5,  6,  7. 

Suppose  A  B  C  D  A  to  be  an  original  drawing,  as  a  plate  for  a 
book,  and  to  be  of  greater  length  or  height  than  the  page  will  admit 
of:  then  let  the  given  height  be  E  H,  construct  two  proportional 
scales,  fig.  7,  as  described  in  this  problem,  then  all  the  dimensions 
and  distances  of  the  diagrams  of  fig.  6.  will  easily  be  proportioned 
to  the  corresponding  dimensions  and  distances  of  the  diagrams, 
fig.  5.  A  very  accurate  method,  where  any  of  the  diagrams  are 
very  oblique,  is  to  produce  the  sides  to  the  boundary  lines  in 
the  original  drawing,  then  finding  the  corresponding  points  in  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  required  drawing,  and  by  this  means  the  an- 
glep  of  position  may  be  had  with  the  greatest  correctness.  In 


30 


GEOMETRY. 


circles,  the  position  of  their  centres  must  be  found  by  measuring 
from  the  corresponding  boundaries,  and  then  their  radii  from  the  re- 
spective  scales.    Parallel  lines  may  be  drawn  by  the  parallel  ruler. 


Prob.  X.   To  draw  a  diagonal  scale. 

Suppose  A  B  to  be  a  scale  agreed  upon,  consisting  of  50  feet, 
the  divisions  separating  each  two  adjacent  10  feet,  being  0,  10,  20. 
SO.  Draw  the  parallel  lines  AC,  .  0,  .  .  10,  10  .  .  20,  20 1 
30,  SO  .  .  B  D.  Take  any  convenient  opening  of  the  compass, 
run  ten  parts  from  A  to  C,  and  from  B  to  D,  through  the  divisions, 
draw  parallels ;  then  C  D  being  numbered  as  A  B :  divide  A  0 
into  10  equal  parts,  and  also  C  0  ;  from  the  points  0,  1,2,  3,  4, 
&c.  in  A  B  to  the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  draw  0,  1 ;  1,  2  :  2,  3: 
3,  4,  &c.  By  this  means  you  may  obtain  the  hundreth  part  of 
the  distance  AO,  or  C  0,  according  to  the  parallel  you  measure 
upon ;  thus,  suppose  you  required  32  feet,  and  4  tenths  of  a  foot, 
you  must  place  the  foot  of  your  compass  on  the  fourth  division 
from  30,  on  the  line  A  B,  in  the  vertical  line  30,  30,  and  extend  the 
other  leg  along  the  fourth  parallel,  till  it  fall  upon  the  diagonal  2, 
3,  and  this  extent  will  bo  equal  to  32.4  feet,  and  thus  any  extent 
whatever  may  be  found. 

Draftsmen  seldom  or  never  make  use  of  a  diagonal  scale,  as 
persons  in  the  habit  of  drawing,  will  judge  of  any  small  part 
as  nearly  by  the  eye,  as  if  measured  by  the  best  divided  diagonal 
6cale,  at  least  without  the  assistance  of  a  glass ;  and  thus  employ- 
ing a  common  scale  will  be  a  great  saving  of  time.  However,  in 
the  solution  of  a  mathematical  problem  in  mensuration,  it  may  be 
applied  with  advantage  where  time  would  be  of  less  consideration, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  accuracy  desired,  or  to  confirm  t!ie  truth  of 
a  calculation. 


CARPENTEY. 


§  1.  Carpentry  in  civil  architecture,  is  the  art  of  employing 
timber  in  the  construction  of  buildings. 

The  first  operation  of  dividing  a  piece  of  timber  into  scantlings, 
or  boards,  by  means  of  the  pit  saw,  belongs  to  sawing,  and  is 
previous  to  any  thing  done  in  carpentry. 

§  2.  The  tools  employed  by  the  carpenter  are  a  ripping  saw, 
a  hand  saw,  an  axe,  an  adze,  a  socket  chisel,  a  firmer  chisel,  a 
ripping  chisel,  an  augur,  a  gimlet,  a  hammer,  a  mallet,  a  pair  of 
pincers,  and  sometimes  planes,  but  as  these  are  not  necessarily 
used,  they  are  described  under  the  head  of  joinery,  to  which  they 
are  absolutely  necessary. 


§3  OF  SAWS. 

A  saw  IS  a  thin  plate  of  steel,  indented  on  the  edge,  so  as  to 
form  a  series  of  wedges,  with  acute  angles,  and  for  the  conveni- 
ency  of  handling,  a  perforated  piece  of  wood  is  fixed  to  one  end, 
by  means  of  which  the  utmost  power  of  the  workman  may  be 
exerted  in  using  it. 

Saws  have  various  names,  according  to  their  use.  It  is  obvious, 
m  order  that  the  saw  should  clear  its  way  in  the  wood,  that  the 
plate  should  decrease  in  thickness  from  the  cutting  edge  towards 


32 


CARPENTRY. 


the  back,  and  for  this  purpose  also,  besides  this  additional  thick 
ness,  most  saws  have  their  teeth  bent  towards  the  alternate  sides 
of  the  plate,  this  must  always  be  the  case  where  the  plate  is  broad : 
in  very  narrow  plates  the  cutting  edge  is  made  thicker  than  usual. 
Such  saws  as  are  not  intended  to  cut  into  the  wood  their  whole 
breadth,  have  strong  iron  or  brass  backs,  in  order  to  stiffen  them, 
and  keep  them  from  buckling  or  bending ;  both  external  and 
internal  angles  of  the  teeth  of  saws  are  made  to  contain  sixty 
degrees,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  teeth  is  proportioned  to  the  size 
of  the  saw,  and  accommodated  to  its  'ise. 

Some  saws  are  used  for  dividing  the  wood  in  the  direction  of 
the  fibre,  and  to  any  extent  of  distance  exceeding  the  breadth 
of  the  plate,  at  pleasure  ;  others  are  only  employed  in  cutting  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  fibres,  to  any  breadth  or  thickness ; 
the  former  case  requires  the  front  edges  of  their  teeth  to  stand 
almost  perpendicular  to  the  line  passing  through  their  angles,  in 
order  to  cut  through,  or  make  a  way  through  in  less  time  than  if 
set  backwards,  which  is  better  adapted  to  the  latter  case :  foi 
otherwise,  the  points  #f  the  teeth  would  run  so  deep  into  the 
wood,  as  to  prevent  the  workmen  from  pushing  the  saw  forward 
without  breaking  it.  The  saws  commonly  used  by  the  carpenter, 
are  the  ripping  saw,  and  the  hand  saw;  v/hich  are  particularly 
described  under  the  head  of  joinery,  as  well  as  other  saws  used 
in  that  branch. 


§  4.  THE  AXE 

Is  an  edged  tool,  having  a  long  wooden  handle,  for  reducing 
timber  to  a. given  form  or  surface,  by  paring  away  slices  of 
unequal  thickness ;  is  used  by  a  reciprocal  motion  in  the  arc 
of  a  circle,  generally  in  a  vertical  plane,  forming  the  surface 
always  in  the  same  plane,  and  has  therefore  its  cutting  edge  in 
a  lor^gitudinal  plane,  passinjr  through  the  handle  ;  the  slices  cut 


CARPENTRY. 


33 


away  are  called  chips,  the  operation  is  called  chopping,  and  the 
surface  reduced  to  its  form  is  said  to  be  chopped  ;  but  among 
woodmen  the  operation  is  called  hewing. 


§  5.  THE  ADZE 

Is  also  an  edge  tool  with  a  long  wooden  handle  for  reducing 
timber  to  a  given  form  of  surface,  by  paring  away  thin  slices  of 
unequal  thickness,  by  a  reciprocal  motion  in  the  arc  of  a  circle, 
and  in  a  vertical  plane  ;  but  its  cutting  edge  is  perpendicular  to  a 
longitudinal  plane  passing  through  the  handle.  It  forms  a  much 
more  regular  and  smooth  surface  than  the  axe.  The  operation  is 
also  called  chopping. 

The  use  of  the  adze  is  to  chop  and  pare  wood  in  a  horizontal 
position. 


§  6.  THE  SOCKET  CHISEL 

Is  used  for  cutting  excavations ;  the  lower  part  is  a  prismoid, 

the  sides  of  which  taper  in  a  small  degree  upwards,  and  the  edges 

considerably  downwards:  one  side  consists  of  steel  and  the  other 

of  iron:    the  under  end  is  ground  into  the  form  of  a  werf' e, 

forming  the  basil  on  the  iron  side,  and  the  cutting  edge  on  ...e 

lower  end  of  the  steel  face.    From  the  upper  end  of  the  prismoidal 

part  rises  the  frustum  of  a  hollow  cone,  increasing  in  diameter 

'inwards  ;  the  cavity  or  socket  contains  a  handle  of  wood  of  the 

same  conic  form :  the  axis  of  the  handle,  the  hollow  cone,  and 

the  middle  line  of  the  frustrum  are  all  in  the  same  straight  line. 

The  socket  chisel,  most  commonly  used,  is  about  an  inch  and 

quarter  or  an  inch  and  a  half  broad.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  mortising, 

and  is  the  same  in  carpentry,  as  what  the  mortise  chisel  is  in 

joinery. 

Nos.  3  &  4.  E 


34 


CARPENTRY. 


§  7.  THE  FIRMER  CHISEL 

Is  formed  in  the  lower  part  similar  to  the  socket  chisel ;  but 
each  of  the  edges  above  the  prismoidal  part  falls  into  an  equal 
concavity,  and  diminishes  upwards,  until  the  substance  of  the 
metal  between  the  concave  narrow  surfaces,  becomes  equal  in 
thickness  to  the  substance  of  the  metal  between  the  other  two 
sides,  produced  in  a  straight  line,  meet  a  protuberance  projecting 
equally  on  each  side  :  the  upper  part  of  the  protuberance  is  afl  at, 
or  straight  surface,  from  the  middle  of  which  rises  a  pyramid,  to 
which  is  fastened  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  form  of  a  frustrum  of  a 
pyramid,  tapering  downwards ;  this  piece  of  wood  is  called  the 
handle  :  the  middle  line  of  the  handle,  of  the  pyramids  of  the  con- 
cave, and  of  the  prismoidal  parts,  are  all  in  the  same  straight  line. 


§  8.  THE  RIPPING  CHISEL 

Is  only  an  old  socket  chisel  used  in  cutting  holes  in  walls  for 
inserting  plugs,  and  for  separating  wood  that  has  been  nailed  to. 
gether,  &c. 


§9.  THE  GIMLET 

Is  a  piece  of  steel  of  a  cylindric  form,  having  a  transverse  han. 
die  at  the  upper  end,  and  at  the  other  end  a  worm  or  screw;  and 
a  cylifidric  cavily  called  the  cup  above  the  screw ;  forming  in 
its  transverse  section,  a  crescent.  Its  use  is  to  bore  small  holes; 
the  screw  draws  it  forward  in  the  wood,  in  the  act  of  boring,  while 
it  is  turned  round  by  the  handle  ;  the  angle  formed  by  the  exterior 
and  interior  cylinders,  cuts  the  fibres  across,  and  the  cup  contains 
the  core  of  wood  so  cut :  the  gimlet  is  turned  round  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  fingers,  on  alternate  sides  of  the  wooden  lever  at 
the  top. 


CARPExMTRY. 


35 


§  10.  THE  AUGER 

Is  the  largest  of  all  boring  tools,  it  has  a  wooden  handle  at  the 
upper  end  at  right  angles,  to  a  long  shaft  of  iron  and  steel ;  at 
the  lower  end  is  a  worm  or  screw  of  a  conic  form,  for  entering 
the  wood ;  so  far  it  is  similar  in  construction  to  the  gimlet :  the 
lower  part  of  the  shaft,  axis,  or  spindle  is  steel,  and  is  of  a  pris- 
nioidal  form,  to  a  certain  distance,  from  the  end  upwards.  The 
edges  are  nearly  parallel,  and  the  sides  taper  in  a  small  degree 
upwards  ;  the  part  of  the  shaft  above  the  prismoid  is  arbitrary ;  but 
it  is  obvious,  that  in  order  to  pass  the  bore  freely,  its  transverse 
dimensions  must  be  less  than  the  lower  part.  The  worm  has  its 
axis  in  the  same  straight  line  with  the  axis  of  the  shaft.  The 
lower  end  is  hollow,  or  cut  into  a  cavity  on  one  side  of  the  cone, 
and  forms  a  projecting  edge  on  the  narrow  surface  of  the  prism 
called  the  tooth,  which  is  brought  to  a  cutting  edge. 

The  part  of  the  lower  end  on  the  other  side  of  the  cone  projects 
before  the  face  of  the  prismoidal  part  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  the 
line  of  concourse  of  the  two  sides  of  the  wedge  forming  a  cutting 
edge.  The  vertex  of  the  cone  is  the  greatest  extremity  of  the 
lower  end ;  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tooth  is  something  higher  or 
nearer  to  the  handle,  and  the  cutting  edge  of  the  wedge-like  part 
still  nearer  to  the  handle.  Any  point  being  given  as  the  centre  of 
a  cylindric  hole  on  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  timber,  the  vertex 
of  the  conic  screw  is  placed  in  that  point ;  then  keeping  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  shaft  perpendicular  to,  or  at  the  inclination  to  be 
given  to  the  surface  of  the  timber  ;  turn  the  auger  round  with  both 
hands,  the  screw  will  draw  it  downwards  into  the  wood,  and  when 
it  has  got  a  certain  depth,  the  tooth  will  begin  to  cut  a  portion  of 
the  cylindric  surface  of  the  hole :  when  the  part  of  the  cylindric 
surface  is  cut  half  round  the  circumference,  or  perhaps  a  little 
more,  the  projecting  wedge-like  part  will  begin  to  cut  out  the 
bottom,  and  the  core  will  rise  in  the  form  of  a  spiral  shaving,  by 
continuing  to  turn  the  handle.  This  construction  of  the  auger  is 
of  very  late  invention,  and  is  certainly  a  great  improvement. 

The  lower  part  of  the  old  form  of  the  auger  is  a  semi-cylinder 


36 


CARPENTRY. 


on  the  outside,  and  the  inside  a  less  portion  of  a  larger  cylinder, 
the  bottom  of  the  cutting  part  is  formed  like  a  nose-bit :  before 
this  auger  can  be  entered  in  the  wood,  a  cavity  must  be  first  made 
with  a  gouge. 


§  11.  THE  GAUGE 

Is  made  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  wood  notched  with  an  internal 
right  angle,  or  consisting  of  two  narrow  planes  perpendicular  to 
each  other ;  one  of  these  straight  surfaces  forms  a  shoulder,  the 
other  surface  has  two  iron  teeth  placed  in  a  perpendicular  to 
the  intersection  of  the  two  surfaces,  so  distant  from  one  another  as 
to  contain  the  thickness  of  the  tenon,  or  breadth  of  the  mortise, 
and  the  tooth  next  to  the  shoulder  so  far  distant  from  the  interscc- 
tion,  as  the  tenon  is  distant  from  the  face.  When  you  gauge, 
press  the  shoulder  close  to  the  wood,  and  the  other  surface  of  the 
gauge  which  contains  the  teeth,  close  to  the  other  surface  of 
the  wood  to  be  gauged ;  then  draw  and  pull  it  backwards  and 
forwards,  and  the  iron  teeth  will  scratch  the  wood  so  as  to  make  a 
sharp  incision  or  cut.  When  carpenters  have  occasion  to  alter 
their  gauge  for  other  work,  they  either  file  away  the  old  teeth  and 
put  in  new  ones  ;  or,  if  the  distance  between  the  old  ones  will 
answer,  they  cut  away  a  parallel  slice  from  the  shoulder,  or  put  a 
new  piece  on  before  it. 


§  12.  THE  LEVEL 

Consists  of  a  long  rule,  straight  on  one  edge,  about  10  or  12 
feet  in  length,  and  another  piece  fixed  to  the  other  edge  of  the. 
rule,  perpendicular  to,  and  fn  the  middle  of  the  length,  and  the 
sides  of  this  piece  in  the  same  plane  as  the  sides  of  the  rule  ;  this 
last  piece  having  a  straight  line  on  one  side  perpendicular  to  the 
straight  edge  of  the  rule.     The  standing  piece  is  generally  mo!  • 


CARPENTRY. 


37 


tised  into  the  other,  and  firmly  braced  on  each  side,  in  order  to 
secure  it  from  accidents,  and  has  its  upper  end  kerfed  in  tiiree 
places,  one  through  the  perpendicular  line,  and  one  on  each  side. 
The  straight  edge  of  the  transverse  piece  has  a  hole  or  notch  cut 
out  on  the  under  side  equal  on  eacli  side  of  the  perpendicular  lines, 
A  plummet  is  suspended  by  a  string  from  the  middle  kerf  at  the 
top  of  the  standing  piece,  so  that  when  hanging  at  length,  the  bottom 
of  the  plummet  may  not  reach  to  the  straight  edge,  but  vibrate 
freely  in  the  hole  or  notch.  When  the  straight  edge  of  the 
level  is  applied  to  two  distant  points,  and  the  two  sides  placed 
vertically,  the  plummet  hanging  freely,  and  coinciding  with  the 
straight  line  on  the  standing  piece,  then  these  two  points  are  level: 
but  if  not,  let  us  suppose  that  one  of  the  points  is  at  the  given 
height,  the  other  point  must  be  lowered  or  heightened  according 
as  the  case  may  require ;  and  the  level  apphed  each  time,  until  the 
thread  is  brought  to  a  coincidence  with  the  perpendicular  line. 
By  two  points,  is  meant  two  surfaces  of  contact,  as  two  blocks  of 
wood  or  chips,  or  the  upper  edges  of  two  distant  beams. 

The  use  of  the  level  in  carpentry,  is  to  lay  the  upper  edges  of 
joists  in  naked  flooring  horizontal,  by  first  levelling  two  beams  as 
remote  from  each  other  as  the  length  of  the  level  will  allow ;  the 
plummet  may  then  be  taken  off,  and  the  level  may  be  used  as  a 
straight  edge.  In  the  levelling  of  joistSi  it  is  best  to  make  two 
remote  joists  level  first  in  themselves,  that  is,  each  throughout  its 
own  length,  then  the  two  level  with  each  other;  after  this,  bring  one 
end  of  the  intermediate  joists  straight  with  the  two  levelled  ones, 
then  the  other  end  of  the  joists  in  the  same  manner,  then  try  the 
straight  edge  longitudinally  on  each  intermediate  joist,  and  such  as 
are  found  to  be  hollow,  must  be  furred  up  straight. 


§  13.  TO  ADJUST  THE  LEVEL. 

Place  it  in  its  vertical  situation  upon  two  pins  or  blocks  of  wood 
then,  if  the  plummet  be  hanging  freely,  and  settle  U7»on  :he  line  on 


38 


CARPENTRY. 


the  standing  piece,  or  if  not,  one  end  being  raised,  or  the  other 
end  lowered,  to  make  it  do  so,  turn  the  level  end  for  end,  and  if 
the  plummet  fall  upon  the  line,  the  level  is  just ;  but  if  not,  the 
bottom  edge  must  be  shot  straight,  and  as  much  taken  off  the  one 
end  as  you  may  think  necessary;  then  trying  the  level  first  one 
way  and  then  the  other  as  before,  and  if  a  coincidence  takes  place 
between  the  thread  and  the  line,  the  level  is  adjusted ;  but  if  not, 
the  operation  must  be  repeated  till  it  come  true. 


§  14.  THE  PLUMB  RULE 

is  a  prismatical  piece  of  wood,  with  a  line  drawn  down  the  mid- 
die  of  one  of  the  sides,  parallel  to  the  two  adjacent  arrises  on  the 
same  face.  Its  use  is  to  try  the  vertical  position  of  posts,  or 
other  work  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  by  means  of  a  plummet 
suspended  from  the  upper  end  of  the  rule,  and  a  notch  cut  out  at 
the  foot,  in  order  to  allow  room  for  the  plummet  to  vibrate  freely. 

In  order  to  put  up  a  post  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  place  the 
bottom  of  the  post  in  its  situation,  and  the  sides  as  nearly  vertical 
as  the  eye  may  direct ;  if  the  post  stands  insulated,  it  must  be  fixed 
in  this  position  with  temporary  braces,  at  least  from  two  adjoining 
sides  ;  but  if  very  heavy,  fi'om  all  the  four  sides ;  then  try  the  plumb 
rule  upon  one  side,  and  if  the  thread  coincides  v*^ith  the  line,  that 
side  of  the  post  is  already  plumb,  but  if  not,  the  top  must  be  moved 
forwards  or  backwards,  accordingly  as  it  leans  or  hangs,  as  much 
as  appears  to  be  wanted,  by  previously  moving  the  front  and  rear 
braces,  and  fixing  them  anew,  while  the  other  two  remain,  to  stay  the 
other  sides  :  apply  the  plumb  rule  again  as  before,  and  if  there  be  a 
coincidence  between  the  line  and  the  plummet  thread,  then  that 
face  is  perpendicular,  but  if  not,  the  several  similar  operations  must 
be  repeated  till  found  to  be  so.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with 
the  other  two  parallel  sides  of  the  post,  until  they  are  made  plumb, 
and  by  this  means  the  post  will  be  set  in  a  true  vertical  position. 


CARPENTRY. 


§  15.  THE  HAMMER 

Consists  of  a  piece  of  steel,  through  which  passes  a  wooden 
handle  perpendicularly  ;  the  steel  is  fiat  at  one  end,  or  in  a  small 
degree  convex.  The  use  of  the  hammer  is  for  driving  nails  into 
•  wood  by  percussive  force.  The  other  end  of  the  hammer,  that  is  not 
used  for  driving  nails,  is  sometimes  made  with  claws,  and  sometimes 
with  a  rounucd  edge,  like  a  semi-cyhnder.  The  claws  are  for 
laying  fast  hold  of  the  head  of  a  nail,  to  be  drawn  out  of  a  piece  of 
wood ;  for  this  purpose  the  back  of  the  hammer  is  rounded,  so  that 
the  hammer,  in  the  act  of  drawing  the  nail,  may  not  penetrate  with 
its  other  extremity  into  the  wood ;  and  this  also  lessens  the  distance 
of  the  force  to  be  overcome  from  the  fulcrum,  and  consequently 
increases  the  power  employed.  When  the  hammer  is  used,  place 
the  back  of  it  upon  the  wood,  and  the  claws  so  as  to  have  the  nail 
fast  between  them,  lay  hold  of  the  handle  and  pull  the  contrary 
way  to  that  side  of  it  on  which  the  nail  is  ;  then,  if  the  force  be 
sufficient,  the  nail  v/ill  be  drawn  out  of  the  wood,  and  the  nail  thus 
drawn  will  come  out  almost  straight.  Some  people,  instead  of 
pulling  the  handle  of  the  hammer  the  contrary  way  to  the  side  on 
which  the  nail  is  on,  (and  thereby  making  it  describe  a  circle  in  a 
plane,  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  through  the 
longitudinal  direction  of  the  head,)  turn  the  hammer  sideways ; 
the  nail  is  easier  drawn  by  this  way,  but  then  the  surface  of  the 
wood  is  more  injured,  as  well  as  the  nail,  which  is  frequently  so 
much  bent  as  not  to  be  of  any  more  use.  Claw  hammers  are 
chiefly  used  in  the  country ;  and  those  with  their  other  extremity 
rounded  like  a  cylinder,  are  used  in  town  for  clinching  and  rivet- 
ting.  In  driving  a  nail,  when  the  hammer  comes  in  contact  with 
the  head  of  the  nail,  if  the  striking  surface  is  not  perpendicular  to 
the  shank  of  the  nail,  the  nail  v^ill  not  be  driven  into  the  wood,  or 
only  in  a  small  degree,  but  will  be  bent  sideways  towards  an  oblique 
angle,  and  will  thus  frequently  break  the  nail,  unless  it  be  well  enter- 
ed, and  so  strong  as  to  resist  the  force  acting  thus  obliquely.  The 
reader  must  here  observe,  that  no  force  can  act  with  its  full  effect 
upon  another,  unless  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  contact. 


40 


CARPENTRY. 


§  16.  THE  MALLET 

Is  similar  in  its  construction  to  the  hammer,  but  the  head  is 
a  thick  block  of  wood,  of  a  structure  in  form  of  the  frustum  of 
a  pyramid,  the  side  of  this  frustum  tending  to  some  point  in  the 
handle  continued.  Itc  use  is  for  mortising  and  driving  pins  into 
wood.    The  object  is  struck  by  the  narrov/  sides  of  the  mallet. 


§  17.  THE  BEETLE  OR  MAUL 

Is  a  large  mallet  to  knock  the  corners  of  framed  work,  and  to 
set  it  in  its  proper  position,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  driving  short 
piles  into  the  ground,  where  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  use  greater 
power.  The  handle  is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  for  these 
heavy  purposes  both  hands  are  employed.  This  is  more  used  in 
the  country  than  in  London,  where  they  use  a  sledge  hammer 
for  the  same  purpose. 


§  18.  THE  CROW 

Is  a  large  bar  of  iron,  used  as  a  lever  to  lift  up  the  ends  of  heavy 
timber,  in  order  to  lay  another  piece  of  timber,  or  a  roller,  under 
it.    One  end  of  the  crow  has  claws. 


§  19.  THE  TEN  FOOT  ROD 

is  a  rod  about  an  inch  square,  divided  in  its  length  into  feet  and 
niches,  for  the  purpose  of  setung  out  work.  The  method  of  raising 
a  perpendicular  by  a  ten  foot  rod,  is  described  in  the  Practical 
Geometry,  page  25,  Prob.  hi.  Instead  of  a  ten  foot  rod,  some 
use  two  five  foot  rods  for  the  same  purpose. 


CARPENTRY. 


41 


§  20.  HOOK  PIN 

Is  a  conical  piece  of  iron,  with  a  hooked  head,  declining  up- 
wards in  the  form  of  a  wedge.  The  top  is  flat,  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  it  down ;  and  the  shoulder  which  rises  from  the  cone, 
stands  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and  is  used  for  driving  it  out  of  a 
hole,  when  it  is  fixed  fast.  The  hook  pins  are  the  same  in  carpen- 
try, as  what  the  draw  bore  pins  are  in  joinery,  viz.  they  are 
employed  after  the  tenons  have  been  entered  in  the  mortise  and 
bored,  as  shall  be  presently  shown,  in  drawing  the  shoulders  of 
the  tenons  home  to  their  abutments  in  the  mortise  cheeks :  when 
there  are  several  mortises  and  tenons  in  the  same  frame,  as  many 
hook  pins  are  employed.  The  method  of  boring,  and  using 
the  hook  pins,  is  thus:  bore  a  hole  first  through  the  mortise  cheeks, 
not  very  distant  from  the  abutments ;  enter  the  tenon,  and  force  it 
home  to  its  shoulders  as  near  as  you  can ;  mark  the  tenon  by  the 
hole,  and  draw  the  tenon  out  of  the  mortise.  Then  pierce  a  hole 
through  the  tenon,  about  one  third  of  its  diameter  nearer  to  the 
shoulder,  and  enter  the  tenon  again,  bringing  the  shoulder  as  near 
to  its  abutment  as  possible ;  drive  in  the  hook  pin  with  consider- 
able force  ;  the  convex  circumference  will  bear  upon  alternate 
sides  of  the  mortise  and  tenon,  viz.  upon  the  farther  side  of  the 
hole  of  the  tenon,  and  upon  the  nearest  side  of  the  mortise  from 
the  joint;  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon  being  brought  home  to  its 
abutment,  the  hook  pin  may  be  drawn  out  of  the  hole  ;  for  this 
purpose  there  is  a  hole  through  the  upper  part  of  it,  by  which  it  is 
sometimes  drawn  out  with  another  hook  pin  ;  but  if  driven  in  very 
fast,  it  will  require  the  assistance  of  a  hammer  to  strike  it  upon 
the  shoulder  upwards,  and  two  or  three  smart  blows  will  soon 
loosen  it ;  when  drawn  out,  enter  the  pin,  and  drive  it  home  with 
force,  or  till  it  be  sufficiently  through  and  fast,  so  as  not  to  be 

driven  farther  without  breaking. 

F  F 


42  CAR.  EiNTRY. 

§  21.  THE  CARPENTER'S  SQUARE 

Is  a  square  of  which  both  stock  and  blade  consists  of  an  iron 
plate  of  one  piece  ;  it  is  in  size  and  construction  thus  :  one  leg  is 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  numbered  from  the  exterior  angle, 
the  bottom  of  the  figures  are  adjacent  to  the  interior  edge  of  the 
square,  and  consequently  their  tops  to  the  exterior  edge  :  the  other 
leg  is  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  numbered  from  the  extremity 
towards  the  angle  ;  the  figures  are  read  from  the  internal  angle, 
as  in  the  other  side  ;  each  of  the  legs  arc  about  an  inch  broad. 
This  implement  is  not  only  used  as  a  square,  but  it  is  also  used  as  a 
level,  and  likewise  as  a  rule  :  its  application  as  a  square  and  as 
a  rule  is  so  easy  as  not  to  require  any  example  :  but  its  use  as  a 
level,  in  taking  angles,  may  be  thus  illustrated  ;  suppose  it  were 
required  to  take  the  angle  which  the  heel  of  a  rafter  makes  with 
the  back,  apply  the  end  of  the  short  leg  of  the  square  to  the  heel 
point  of  the  rafter,  and  the  edge  of  the  square,  level  across  the 
plate,  extend  a  line  from  the  ridge  to  the  heel  point,  and  where 
this  line  cuts  the  perpendicular  leg  of  the  square,  mark  the  inches, 
and  this  will  show  how  far  it  deviates  from  the  square  in  twelve 
inches. 


§22.  OPERATIONS. 

Having  now  mentioned  the  principal  tools,  and  their  application, 
it  will  here  be  proper  to  say  something  of  the  operations  of  Car- 
pentry, which  may  be  considered  under  two  general  heads  ;  one  of 
individual  pieces,  the  other  the  combination  of  two  or  more  pieces. 

Individual  pieces  undergo  various  operations  as  sawing,  planing, 
rebating,  and  grooving,  or  ploughing  :  the  operation  of  the  pit  saw 
is  so  well  known  as  hardly  to  need  a  description ;  planing,  rebating;, 
grooving,  or  ploughing,  are  more  frequently  employed  in  Joinery, 
and  will  be  there  fully  described.  The  other  general  head  may 
be  sub-divided  into  two  others,  viz.  that  of  joining  one  piece  ot 
timber  to  another,  in  order  to  make  one,  two,  or  four  angles,  the 


CARPENTRY. 


43 


other  that  of  fastening  two  or  more  pieces  together,  in  order  to 
form  one  piece,  which  could  not  be  got  sufficiently  large  or  long  in 
a  single  piece ;  there  are  two  methods  of  joining  pieces  at  an  angle, 
one  by  notching,  the  other  by  mortise  and  tenon. 

Notching  is  the  most  common  and  simple  form  that  prevails  in 
permanent  works,  and  in  some  cases  the  strongest  for  joining  two 
pieces  of  timber  together,  at  one,  two,  or  four  angles  :  the  form  of 
the  joint  in  this  is  varied  according  to  the  situation,  the  positions 
of  the  sides  of  the  pieces,  the  number  of  angles,  the  position  of 
the  pieces,  and  the  quantity  and  direction  of  the  force  impressed 
on  one  or  both  pieces,  or  according  to  any  combination  of  those 
circumstances.    The  most  useful  are  the  following. 


§  23.  To  join  two  pieces  which  are  to  form  four  angles,  and  the 
surfaces  of  one  piece  are  both  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  tlwse 
of  the  other. 

A  notch  may  be  cut  out  of  one  piece,  the  breadth  of  the  other, 
which  may  be  let  down  on  the  first  piece,  or  the  two  pieces  may 
be  reciprocally  notched  to  each  other,  and  for  further  security, 
nails,  spikes,  or  pins,  may  be  driven  through  both :  this  form  is 
applicable  where  each  of  the  pieces  are  equally  exposed  to  strain 
in  any  direction :  when  one  piece  has  to  support  the  other 
transversely,  the  upper  piece  may  have  a  notch  cut  across  it  to  a 
breadth;  suppose  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  piece  below, 
and  the  lower  piece  must  have  an  equal  notch  cut  out  on  each 
upper  arris,  leaving  two-thirds  of  the  breadth  of  the  middle  entire, 
by  which  the  strength  of  the  supporting,  or  lower  piece,  is  less  di- 
minished than  if  a  notch  of  much  less  depth  had  been  cut  the  whole 
breadth:  this  mode  is  applicable  to  carcass  roofing,  in  letting  the 
purloins  down  upon  the  principal  rafters,  and  the  common  rafters 
again  upon  these;  also  in  carcass  flooring,  it  is  employed  in  letting 
down  the  bridg/'ng  joists  upon  the  binding  joists. 


44 


CARPENTRY. 


§  24.  To  join  one  piece  of  Timber  to  another,  to  form  two  right 
angles  with  each  other,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  one  to  be  parallel 
and  perpendicular  to  those  of  the  other,  and  to  be  quite  immoveable, 
when  the  standing  piece  is  pulled  in  a  direction  of  its  length,  while 
the  cross  piece  is  held  still. 

Dovetail  the  end  of  the  perpendicular  piece,  that  is,  fornn  it  like 
a  truncated  isosceles  triangle,  the  wide  part  being  on  the  extremity, 
make  a  corresponding  reverse  in  the  other,  and  if  both  these  pieces 
be  horizontal,  and  the  former  laid  upon  the  latter,  they  will  answer 
the  intended  purpose  without  the  addition  of  nails,  spikes,  or  pins: 
in  this  mode,  if  the  timber  is  not  sufficiently  seasoned,  the  perpen- 
dicular piece  may  be  drawn  out  of  the  transverse  piece,  to  a  certain 
distance,  according  to  the  degree  of  shrinking. 


§  25.  Another  mode. 

Which  prevents  the  perpendicular  piece  from  being  drawn  out 
of  the  transverse  piece,  allowing  that  the  timber  should  shrink,  is  to 
notch  the  transverse  piece,  so  as  that,  if  the  breadth  be  supposed 
to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  and  three  of  these  be  notched  from 
one  edge,  and  one  from  the  other,  leaving  one  part  entire,  obser- 
ving that  these  two  notches  should  not  be  cut  more  than  one  third 
of  the  thickness  through  ;  then  cut  a  notch  out  of  the  perpendicu- 
lar, to  fit  the  entire  part  of  the  transverse,  leaving  two-fifths  entire 
towards  the  extremity,  and  when  the  two  pieces  are  joined  together, 
the  notch  and  the  entire  part  of  the  perpendicular  piece  will  re- 
ispectively  fit  the  entire  part,  and  the  broad  notch  of  two-fifths  of 
the  transverse  piece.  If  the  upper  piece  press  upon  the  under 
piece,  by  its  own  weight,  or  with  an  additional  force,  neither  nails, 
spikes,  nor  pins  will  be  necessary. 

These  methods  of  framing  a  piece  of  timber,  at  right  angles  to 
another,  are  used  in  cocking  down  the  beams  of  a  building  upon 
the  wall-plate  ;  but  the  latter  method  is  more  generally  employed 


CARPENTRY.  45 

than  the  former,  as  being  more  perfect ;  either  method  is  infinitely 
superior  to  mortise  and  tenon  for  such  purpose. 


)  26.  To  notch  one  piece  of  Timber  to  another,  or  join  the  two,  so 
as  to  form  one  right  angle,  in  order  that  they  may  he  equally  strong, 
in  respect  to  each  other. 

Notch  each  piece  half  through,  and  nail,  spike,  or  pin  them  to- 
gether ;  or  they  may  be  partly  notched  on  each  other,  and  the 
inner  edge  of  one  again  no-tched,  leaving  the  substance  sufficiently 
thick  below  each  notch,  and  a  part  entire  at  the  inner  edge  ;  cut 
the  corresponding  reverses  in  the  other  piece,  and  when  the  two 
are  joined,  neither  can  be  drawn  out  of  the  other :  these  two 
methods  of  joining  a  piece  of  timber  to  form  a  right  angle  with 
another,  are  applied  to  wall-plates  and  bond  timbers  at  the  corners 
of  a  building ;  but  wherever  the  thickness  of  the  walls  will  admit, 
it  is  much  better  to  make  the  end  of  each  piece  to  pass  the  breadth 
of  the  other  as  much  as  possible,  so  that  by  this  means  four  right 
angles  will  be  formed  instead  of  one  ;  then  the  two  may  be  equally 
notched  as  in  the  former  case 


§27.  To  fx  one  piece  of  Timber  to  another,  forming  two  oblique 
angles,  so  thai  the  standing  piece  cannot  be  drawn  out  of  the 
transverse. 

Cut  a  dovetail  notch  in  the  transverse  piece,  keeping  the  edge 
straight  upon  the  side  next  to  the  obtuse  angle,  that  is,  forming  the 
dovetail  on  the  side  of  the  acute  angle ;  make  the  corresponding 
notch  upon  the  piece  which  has  the  two  angles  on  the  same  side, 
and  nail,  spike,  or  j  in  them  together  if  necessary:  this  form  is 
particularly  applicable  to  roofing. 


40 


CARPExNTRY. 


§28.   To  cut  a  rebated  notch  in  the  end  of  a  Scantlings  or  piece 

of  Wood, 

If  the  piece  is  not  above  three  or  four  inches  in  either  dimen- 
sion, it  may  be  cross-cut  with  the  hand-saw  to  the  depth,  and 
the  piece  may  be  cut  longitudinally  out,  or  in  the  direction  of  the 
Gores  with  the  same  :  but  if  the  stufl'  is  very  broad,  as  a  plank  or 
board,  and  the  notch  is  to  be  cut  in  the  breadth  of  the  board,  then 
you  may  cross-cut  the  face  wkh  the  band-saw  as  before,  and  cut 
the  piece  out  with  the  adze  to  the  depth  required ;  if  it  is  to  be 
cut  from  the  edge  of  a  board  or  plank,  you  may  proceed  as  at  first 
with  the  hand-saw  only. 


§  29.   To  cut  a  grooved  notch,  or  socket  in  a  piece  of  Timber. 

Cross-cut  the  two  ends  or  sides  with  the  hand-saw  to  the  intended 
depth  ;  then,  if  the  notch  is  sufficiently  long  or  broad  to  admit  of 
the  breadth  of  the  blade  of  the  adze,  you  may  cut  out  the  wood 
between  the  two  kerfs  with  the  adze  ;  but  if  the  width  or  breadth 
of  the  tenoned  piece  is  not  of  sufficient  extent,  you  may  then  cut 
out  the  intermediate  wood  between  the  kerfs  with  the  socket  chisel, 
and  smooth  the  bottom  of  the  notch  with  the  paring  chisel. 


§  30.   To  cut  a  Tenon, 

This  operation  is  only  a  double  rebated  notch ;  and  consequently 
the  methods  for  cutting  the  tenon  are  the  same  under  like  circum- 
stances of  size  and  dimensions.    See  also  the  next  article. 

§81.   To  frame  one  Timber  at  right  angle  s  to,  and  at  some  distance 
from,  either  end  of  another,  both  pieces  being  of  the  same  quality. 

To  do  this,  the  piece  of  timber  which  is  to  stand  perpendicular 


47 


to  the  other,  nmst  be  reduced  of  its  thickness  by  cutting  ciway  two 
rectangular  prisms  from  both  ends,  and  leaving  another  rectangu- 
lar  prism  in  the  middle  of  the  thickness,  commonly  called  a  tenon, 
which  is  made  to  fit  a  corresponding  excavation,  called  a  mortise, 
taken  out  of  the  other  piece,  so  that  when  both  pieces  are  joined 
together,  two  of  the  surfaces  of  the  one  piece  will  be  straight  with 
two  of  the  surfaces  of  the  other,  and  the  other  two  remaining  sur- 
taces  of  the  one  piece  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  other  two 
remaining  surfaces  of  the  other ;  and  if  properly  joined,  the  super- 
fices  of  both  pieces  will  come  in  contact  with  each  other,  so  as  to 
leave  no  interstice  or  cavity. 

Before  the  mortise  and  tenon  is  made,  it  will  be  proper  to  say 
something  of  the  proportion  between  the  thickness  of  the  tenon, 
or  breadth  of  the  mortise,  and  the  thickness  of  the  stuff :  Suppose 
the  tenon  to  be  entered  in  the  mortise,  and  driven  home ;  and 
suppose  the  piece  which  has  the  mortise,  to  be  held  still,  while  a 
force  is  applied  to  the  other  end  of  the  tenoned  piece,  so  as  to  act 
transversely  to  the  mortised  piece,  then  one  or  other  must  give 
way.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  mortise  cheeks  are  too  thin,  they 
,  will  split,  or  if  the  tenon  be  too  thin,  it  will  break  transversely ; 
there  is,  therefore,  some  proportion  between  the  breadth  of  the 
mortise  and  the  thickness  of  the  stuff,  so  that  the  one  shall  be 
equally  strong  with  the  other,  to  resist  this  kind  of  strain.  Another 
thing  which  will  affect  this  proportion,  is,  whether  the  junction  is 
to  be  supported,  as  in  wall-plates,  or  unsupported,  as  in  joisting ; 
a  thinner  tenon  will  be  required  if  unsupported,  than  if  supported ; 
for  suppose  that  the  junction  has  no  support,  the  surface  of  both 
parts  lying  horizontally ;  and  suppose  a  weight  or  force  upon  the 
tenoned  piece,  near  to  the  shoulder,  pressing  vertically  downwards, 
while  the  mortised  piece  is  fixed  at  both  ends,  and  the  tenoned 
piece  is  also  fixed  at  its  remote  end ;  likewise  suppose  that  the 
width  of  the  mortise  is  one  third  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff,  it 
will  perhaps  be  found  that  the  under  cheek  of  the  mortise  will  split 
away,  while  the  tenon  will  remain  unbroken  ;  the  mortise,  there, 
fore,  requires  to  be  still  less:  but  there  is  another  reason,  equalW 


48 


CARPENTRY. 


powerful,  which  corroborates  this  practice,  which  is,  that  by  cut. 
ting  away  one  third  of  the  substance,  the  mortised  piece  woulo  be 
weakened  too  much  when  thus  unsupported,  as  is  the  case  in 
joisting.  Though  we  cannot  determine  with  mathematical  accu- 
racy,  nor  by  any  result  of  experiments,  common  practice  has 
sanctioned  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  to  be  about  one  fifth  of  the 
thickness  of  stuff ;  this  being  fixed,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  the 
practice. 

First  square  the  shoulder,  by  drawing  three  hnes,  one  perpen- 
dicular to  the  thickness  of  the  tenon,  and  each  of  the  other  two  to 
meet  this  line  perpendicular  to  the  adjoining  arrises,  on  which  the 
first  line  was  drawn ;  then  mark  the  breadth  of  the  tenon,  at  the 
place  where  the  mortise  is  to  be  cut,  in  the  length  of  the  mortised 
piece  ;  through  each  extremity  draw  a  line  by  the  iron  square, 
perpendicular  to  the  arrises  on  the  one  side  on  which  the  mortise 
is  to  be  cut,  and  at  the  intersection  of  the  lines,  with  one  of  the 
adjoining  arrises,  draw  two  other  lines  on  the  co  is  side : 
then,  where  each  of  these  lines  meet  the  other  arrib,  .  lines  in 
the  same  manner  upon  the  third,  side ;  so  that  each  of  the  three 
contiguous  sides  will  have  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  arrises 
of  that  side.  Take  the  gauge,  described  in  section  11,  and  gauge 
the  tenon  from  the  face,  and  the  mortise  from  the  same  side,  which 
is  to  be  flush  with  it.  Then  entering  the  handsaw  by  the  lines 
drawn  on  the  shoulder,  cut  the  shoulders  to  the  gauge  lines,  and 
saw  off  the  tenon  cheeks,  and  thus  you  have  the  ten9n  completed. 
Then  with  the  socket  chisel  and  mallet  knock  out  the  core  of  the 
mortise  ;  then  drawbore  your  work  together  with  the  hook  pins  as 
m  section  20,  and  the  work  will  be  completed. 


^  32.  To  join  two  Timbers  by  Mortise  and  Tenon,  at  a  right  angles 
so  that  the  one  shall  not  pass  the  breadth  of  the  other. 

Let  us  suppose  that  each  of  the  pieces  to  be  framed  are  of  yel- 
low  fir,  or  both  of  the  same  quaHty  of  wood.    It  is  evident,  thatil 


CARPENTRY. 


41) 


the  mortise  were  cut  away  the  whole  breadth  of  the  tenon,  and 
the  tenon  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  piece  it  is  formed  on,  that 
the  one  could  not  make  any  resistance  to  the  other  without  the 
assistance  of  a  pin.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  mortise  must 
not  be  cut  to  its  full  breadth,  but  must  want  a  certain  part  of  that 
towards  the  end  of  the  tenoned  piece ;  our  next  inquiry  must  be 
ihe  proportion  between  the  length  of  the  mortise,  and  breadth  of 
the  tenoned  piece,  as  it  must  be  considered  the  strain  which  the 
mortise  is  liable  to,  is  splitting,  and  that  of  the  tenon,  is  in  break- 
ing transversely  to  the  fibres ;  for  there  is  a  certain  proportion  be- 
tween  the  breadth  of  the  tenon,  and  breadth  of  the  piece  on  which 
it  is  cut,  so  that  the  one  will  resist  equally  the  other  This  is  a 
point  that  has  not  been  mathematically  ascertained ;  however, 
common  practice  allows  the  tenon  to  bejreduced  about  one  third 
of  its  breadth,  and  consequently  the  breadth  of  the  tenon  two 
thirds,  and  the  length  of  the  mortise  two  thirds  also.  As  to  the 
thickness  of  the  tenon,  or  breadth  of  the  mortise,  it  is  the  same  as 
we  mentioned  in  the  preceding  case,  and  will  differ  according  as 
it  is  to  lie  hollow,  or  lie  upon  a  solid.  The  cutting  of  the  tenon, 
and  taking  out  of  the  mortise,  is  the  same  as  has  been  shewn  in 
the  preceding  case,  the  pinning  the  same  as  in  section  20, 


^  33    Of  Foundations  and  Timbers,  in  joisting  and  walling. 

The  foundations  being  excavated  to  the  intended  depth,  the 
ground  must  be  examined,  by  trying  whether  it  is  sufficiently  firm 
in  all  places,  so  as  to  support  the  weight  of  the  intended  building. 
There  are  several  meann  of  securing  foundations  without  piling, 
should  any  artificial  meaa*  be  required  ;  but  as  our  present  subject 
is  carpentry,  and  as  theae  do  not  come  under  the  carpenter's  pro- 
fession, we  will  first  suppose  that  the  intended  building  is  to  be 
brick  or  stone,  and  thht  the  foundation  is  infirm,  piles  must  then 
be  prepared,  such,  thfj^t  their  thickness  may  be  about  a  twelfth  part 

of  their  length.   The  lii^nnces  which  these  piles  will  require  to  be 
Nos.  3  &  4.  F 


50 


CARPENTRY. 


disposed,  and  the  momentum  required  to  drive  them,  will  depend 
on  the  weight  of  the  building  ;  for  the  weight  of  the  ram  used  in 
driving  them,  ought  not  to  be  more  than  what  would  be  sufficient 
for  the  purpose,  as  a  greater  number  of  men,  or  power,  would 
need  to  be  employed,  which  would  occasion  an  unnecessary  ex- 
pense. We  will  now  suppose  the  piling  to  be  completed,  so  as  to 
be  sufficient  for  supporting  the  intended  building  ;  some  people  lay 
a  level  row  of  cross  bearers,  called  sleepers,  and  plank  above  ; 
but  then  observe,  before  the  planking  is  laid,  that  all  the  interstices 
should  be  levelled  up  to  the  top  of  the  sleepers,  with  bricks,  &;c. 
The  planking,  however,  will  not  be  necessary,  provided  that  the 
piling  be  sufficiently  attended  to,  and  thus  the  expense  of  the  foun- 
dation will  be  materially  lessened.  All  timber  whatever,  of  which 
the  thickness  stands  vertical  in  the  building,  being  liable  to  shrink, 
will  also  make  the  building  liable  to  crack,  or  split,  at  the  junctions 
with  the  return  parts.  In  cases  where  the  ground  is  not  very  soft, 
a  balk  is  sometimes  slit  in  halves,  and  these  either  laid  immediately 
at  the  bottom,  or  at  the  height  of  two  or  three  courses,  and  this 
will  frequently  prevent  settlements,  which  are  occasioned  by  an 
unequal  pressure  of  the  piers,  and  the  intermediate  brick-work  or 
masonry,  under  apertures.  Suppose  the  foundation  to  be  brought 
up  to  its  height,  or  to  the  level  of  the  under  sides  of  the  ground 
joists;  the  ground  plates  must  be  laid,  and  sleepers,  at  eight  or  ten 
feet  distance  where  the  floors  are  intended  to  be  boarded:  these 
sleepers  are  supported  upon  small  pillars  or  piles  of  brick,  or  by 
stones,  at  five,  six,  or  eight  feet  distance,  according  to  the  sub- 
stance  of  timber  used  for  the  sleepers,  and  their  ends  supported  by 
the  walls.  The  next  thing  is  to  lay  the  ground  joists.  When  the 
bricklayer  has  got  to  the  top  of  the  first  windows,  the  carpenter 
may  lintel  the  windows  :  but  if  the  joisting  of  the  next  floor  is  laid 
upon  the  lintels,  the  wall-plate  and  the  lintels  will  form  one  con- 
tinued length  of  timber,  which  will  be  much  stronger  than  lintels, 
having  only  nine  or  ten  inches  bearing  upon  the  walls.  Suppose 
now  the  wall-plates  laid  round  the  exterior  walls,  and  returned  in 
flank  or  party-walls,  except  at  the  flues,  and  likewise  laid  in  cross. 


CARPENTRY. 


51 


walls  of  brick  or  stone;  or  if  a  timber  partition  is  required,  and 
the  joisting  to  be  supported  by  this  partition,  the  partition  is  seldom 
carried  up,  the  joisting  is  first  laid  and  levelled;  instead  of  the 
partition,  a  plank  or  other  piece  bf  timber  is  laid  under  the  joisting 
at  the  place,  and  this  supported  by  uprights,  which  are  forced  up 
with  wedges,  so  as  to  bring  the  top  of  the  joists  to  a  level;  before 
the  joisting  is  put  down,  the  trimmers  of  stairs  and  chimnies  must 
be  framed  in.  If  a  double  floor  is  to  be  laid  with  girders,  be  sure 
to  lay  templets,  or  short  pieces  of  timber,  under  the  girders,  as  this 
will  distribute  the  pressure  over  a  greater  surface,  and  thereby 
prevent  settlements.  The  naked  flooring  being  laid,  in  carrying 
up  the  second  story,  bond  timbers  must  be  introduced  opposite  to 
all  horizontal  mouldings,  as  bases  and  surbases.  It  is  also  custom- 
ary to  put  a  row  of  bond-timber  in  the  middle  of  the  story,  of 
greater  strength  than  those  for  the  bases  and  surbases.  The  work 
being  so  far  advanced,  we  will  suppose  the  building  roofed  in  and 
completed;  as  there  will  be  immediate  occasion  for  resuming  the 
subject  in  the  description  of  a  wooden  building. 


§  34.  Stud-work,  and  Plaster  Buildings. 

The  foundation  being  made  secure,  and  the  several  scantlings 
for  ground. plates,  principal  posts,  posts,  bressummers,  girders, 
trimmers,  joists,  &c.  being  prepared  and  framed,  agreeable  to  their 
several  situations.  Timbers  laid  on  the  foundation,  or  next  to  the 
ground,  are  generally  of  oak,  as  ground-plates,  which  should  be 
about  eight  inches  broad,  and  six  inches  vertically.  The  front  and 
rear  plates  are  to  be  framed  by  mortise  and  tenon,  the  front  and 
rear  plates  being  mortised,  and  the  flank  \>ieces  consequently 
tenoned.  Sometimes  the  flank  pieces  are  mortised  to  receive 
the  joists.  The  ground  plates  are  to  be  bored  with  an  inch  and 
half  auger,  and  pinned  together  with  oak  pins,  made  taper  towards 
the  point,  and  so  strong  as  to  withstand  the  blows  of  the  mallet, 
when  driven  tight  into  the  hole.  As  the  wood  which  carpenters 
work  upon  is  generally  heavy  timbers,  a  block  is  laid  under  the 


52 


CARPENTRY. 


corner  to  bear  the  plate  off  the  foundation,  so  as  to  allow  room  f(,r 
driving  of  the  hook  pins ;  when  the  wooden  pins  are  driven,  re- 
move  the  blocks,  and  let  the  plates  bed  firmly  on  the  foundation. 
But  before  the  pins  are  driven,  if  .there  be  any  girders  it  must  be 
fitted  in,  and  all  the  joisting  and  trimmers,  for  they  cannot  be  got 
in  afterwards.  We  shall  suppose  that  every  thing  is  got  to  its 
birth,  and  the  work  pinned  together.  Four  corner  posts,  eight 
inches  by  six,  viz.  of  the  same  scantling  as  the  ground  plates,  are 
erected,  presenting  their  narrow  sides  to  the  front,  and  extending 
the  whole  height  of  the  building,  till  they  meet  the  wall-plates. 
These  corner  posts  are  called  principal  posts,  and  are  mortised  and 
tenoned  into  the  ground-plates,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  being 
inserted  into  the  rising-plates.  At  the  height  of  the  principal  story, 
two  mortises  must  be  cut  in  each  principal  post ;  which  being  set 
up,  enter  the  tenons  of  the  next  bressummers  into  the  morlises, 
and  stay  the  principal  posts,  by  means  of  temporary  braces,  fixed 
to  the  framed  work  of  the  floor.  Set  up  the  several  intermediate 
story  posts,  or  those  which  are  framed  into  the  interstices,  and  ten- 
on  the  ends  of  these  posts  into  the  bressummers  or  interstices,  as 
it  may  happen  whether  there  are  interstices  between  the  bressum- 
mers  or  not.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  bressummers,  gir. 
der,  and  joists,  of  the  next  story.  It  does  not  always  happen  that 
there  is  a  girder,  but  if  one  side  of  it  should  prove  to  be  wainy, 
that  side  must  be  turned  upwards,  and  the  shoulders  of  the  joists 
must  be  scribed  upon  the  wains. 

We  shall  now  suppose,  the  principal  posts,  story  posts,  or  other 
intermediate  posts,  bressummers,  girders,  floor  joists,  trimmers, 
and  trimming  joists,  all  completely  fitted  together,  you  may  proceed 
to  pin  the  work  together,  and  put  on  the  raising  plates,  which  are 
let  down  upon  the  tenons  of  the  principal  posts,  and  then  complete 
the  roof  ;  you  may  then  begin  to  put  up  the  truss  partitions,  if  there 
be  such,  and  fill  in  the  larger  interstices  in  the  outside  framirt<r, 
and  in  these  partitions  with  quarters. 

§  35.  What  now  remains  to  be  done  belongs  to  the  joiner,  on! 
will  therefore  be  found  under  the  article  Joinery. 


CARPENTRY. 


53 


In  the  description  of  this  wooden  fabric,  as  there  are  several 
jiarticulars  respecting  the  scantHngs  and  bearings  of  timbers,  not 
mentioned,  the  following  table  may  be  referred  to,  not  only  to  sup 
ply  these  wants,  but  on  various  other  occasions. 

In  the  folio wirg  tables,  the  first  vertical  column  contains  the 
heights  or  bearings  in  the  clear  of  timbers;  the  second,  the  scant- 
lings in  inches  for  firwood :  and  the  third,  the  scantlings  in  inches 
for  oak  wood  ;  the  corresponding  parts  are  to  be  found  in  each  ho- 
rizontal row,  as  is  sufficiently  plain  from  the  tables. 


§36.  TABLE  I. 


I  ■vw*  X/^/X/X  "X/W*  ■*/v%*^'vx/v/% 


BEARING  POSTS. 


Height. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches 

by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

8 

6 

X  10 

7    X  12 

10 

7 

X  11 

8    X  13 

12 

8 

X  12 

9    X  14 

14 

9 

X  13 

10    X  15 

16 

10 

X  14 

11     X  16 

18 

11 

X  15 

12    X  17 

20 

12 

X  16 

13    X  18 

*  ^./WVVX/W  WX/\*' 


X/X/X/V%/X/W  %/X/X/\« 


^  37.  The  table  of  bearing  posts  here  given,  is  considered  gs 
sufficient  only  for  supporting  two  or  three  stories  of  a  dwelling 
house,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  table  that  will  be  adequate  to 
every  class  of  building.  These  scantlings  do  not  depend  upon 
the  height  of  the  building,  but  upon  the  weight  with  which  the 
several  floors  are  loaded. 

The  supporting  timbers  required  for  the  construction  of  a  ware- 
house, ought  to  be  very  diffisrent  from  those  employed  in  a  com- 
mon dwelling  house.  It  must  be  farther  observed  ihat  all  bearing 
f2 


54 


CARPENTRY. 


posts  which  stand  insulated,  ought  to  be  exactly  square ;  but,  as 
in  general  they  are  stayed  sideways  by  doors,  windows,  or  in 
tertices ;  the  sides  of  the  pieces  employed  are  of  unequal 
dimensions :  giving  a  greater  depth,  requires  less  timber  to  make 
them  equally  strong,  and  by  making  them  thinner,  gives  more 
ample  area  for  light,  which  is  particularly  wanted  in  shop  stories. 
Another  observation  ;  the  table  above  is  not  constructed,  so  as  to 
make  the  story  posts  at  different  heights  equally  strong,  even  under 
the  same  circumstances  of  weight,  as  higher  posts  would  be  more 
liable  to  accidents  than  lower  ones,  so  that  there  is  a  continued 
increase  of  strength  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  posts.  We  cannot 
say  positively,  what  the  exact  scantlings  for  bearing  posts  of  given 
heights  ought  to  be,  though  the  weight  which  they  have  to  support 
were  known,  as  we  have  no  detail  of  experiments  sufficient  to 
enable  us  to  establish  a  principle  of  calculation.  We  have  ttere- 
fore,  nothing  else  to  depend  upon  but  our  experience,  and  what 
we  see  commonly  put  in  practice.  Two  practical  men  will  not 
always  exactly  agree,  in  what  ought  to  be  a  standard  under  par- 
ticular circumstances.  The  breaking  of  timber  by  compression, 
is  so  intricate  of  itself,  that  men  of  science  have  not  agreed  as  to 
the  general  law  by  which  a  transverse  fracture  is  produced.  With 
regard  to  the  difference  of  strength  between  fir  and  oak,  Muchen- 
broek  asserts,  on  the  authority  of  his  own  experiments,  that 
although  oak  will  suspend  half  as  much  again  as  fir,  it  will  not 
support  as  a  pillar,  two  thirds  of  the  load  :  upon  this  authority  also, 
the  author  has  ventured  to  make  the  oak  scantling  larger  than 
the  fir. 


CARPENTRY 


55 


§38.  TABLE  II. 


I  GIRDERS.  I 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

'  Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

12 

10    X  8 

9X7 

16 

12    X  10 

11    X  9 

23 

14    X  12 

13    X  11 

24 

16    X  14 

15    X  13 

§39.  TABLE  III. 


BRIDGING  JOISTS. 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches, 

Inches  by  Inches. 

4 

4      X  2^ 

3i    X  21 

6 

5X4 

4^    X  21 

8 

6X2^ 

51    X  21 

10 

7X2^ 

6^    X  21 

CARPENTRY. 


§40.  TABLE  IV. 
I  BINDING  JOISTS. 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

8 

7X4 

6X4 

10 

8X4 

7X4 

12 

9X4 

8X4 

14 

10    X  4 

9X4 

^VVVXlVX'VX.V>/VVV«/VVW%/VV«/«/X^%/VV%V%/X/VV«/VVVVVV%'VVV%/VVVVX/V^%^^ 


§41.  TABLE  V. 

I  TIE  BEAMS. 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

20 

8 

X  4 

7  X 

30 

10 

X  6 

9    X  51 

40 

12 

X  8 

11     X  7i 

50 

14 

X  10 

13    X  91 

60 

16 

X  12 

15    X  lU 

CARPENTRY. 


§42.  TABLE  VI. 
I  PRINCIPAL  RAFTERS.  \ 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

12 
18 

24 
30 
36 

5X3 
61    X  4 
8X5 
91    X  6 
11      X  7 

61    X  31 
71    X  41 

H  X  H 

101    X  61 
121    X  71 

§43.  TABLE  VII. 


PURLINES. 

Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

6 
8 
10 
12 
14 

7x4 
8X5 
9X6 

10  X  7 

11  X  8 

61    X  31 
71    X  41 

81     X  51 

91   X  ei 
lOi   X  71 

G 

58 


CARPENTRY. 


§  44.  In  table  VI.  As  principal  rafters  are  always  in  a  state 
of  compression,  the  oak  scantlings  are  increased  according  to  the 
aforesaid  experiments.  All  ties  should  therefore  be  made  of  oak, 
and  all  compressed  or  straining  pieces  of  fir. 


§45.  TABLE  VIII. 


SMALL  RAFTERS. 


Bearing. 

Fir. 

Oak. 

Feet. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

Inches  by  Inches. 

8 

H    X  ^ 

4      X  21 

10 

6      X  21 

51    X  21 

12 

^    X  2i 

7      X  2^ 

All  beams  ought  to  be  cut  or  forced  to  a  camber,  an  inch  for 
every  20  feet :  as  all  framed  work  will  shrink,  and  sag  after  being 
put  together. 

Roofs  are  much  stronger  when  the  purlines  run  above  the  prin- 
cipal, than  when  framed  in. 

In  all  case  or  tail  bays,  in  floors  or  roofs,  the  bearings  of  either 
joists  or  rafters,  ought  not  to  exceed  12  feet. 


Abstract  of  the  Building  Act,  as  far  as  regards  the  Carpenter y  14 
Geo.  III.  which  refers  only  to  London,  and  the  several  Parishes 
within  the  Bills  of  Mortality 

Those  timber  partitions  between  building  and  building,  that  were 


CARPENTRY. 


59 


erected,  or  begun  to  be  erected  before  the  passing  of  the  act,  may 
remain  till  one  of  the  adjoining  houses  is  rebuilt,  or  till  one  of  the 
fron-ts,  or  two  thirds  of  such  fronts,  which  abut  on  such  timber  par. 
tition,  is  taken  down  to  the  bressummer,  or  one  pair  of  stairs  floor, 
and  rebuilt. 

Proprietor  of  a  house  or  ground  to  give  three  months  notice  to 
pull  down  such  wooden  partitions  when  decayed,  or  of  insufficient 
thickness,  and  to  be  left  with  the  owner  or  occupier  of  such  a 
house,  and  if  empty,  such  notice  to  be  stuck  up,  in  and  on  the 
front  door,  or  front  of  such  house. 

No  timber  hereafter  to  be  laid  in  any  party  arch,  nor  in  any  party 
wall,  except  for  bond  to  the  same  ;  nor  any  bond  timber,  within  9 
inches  of  the  opening  of  a  chimney,  nor  within  5  inches  of  the 
flue,  nor  any  timber^  within  2  feet  of  any  oven,  stove,  copper,  still, 
boiler,  or  furnace. 

All  framed  work  of  wood  for  chimney  breasts,  to  be  fastened  to 
the  said  breast  with  iron  work  as  hold  fasts,  wall  hooks,  spikes, 
nails,  &c.  nor  driven  more  than  3  inches  into  the  wall,  nor  nearer 
than  4  inches  to  the  inside  of  the  opening  of  the  chimney. 

No  timber  bearer  to  wooden  stairs  let  into  an  old  party  wall, 
must  come  nearer  than  8  and  a  half  inches  to  the  flue,  nor  nearer 
than  4  inches  to  the  internal  finishing  of  the  adjoining  building. 

No  timber  to  be  laid  under  any  hearth  to  a  chimney,  nearer  than 
18  inches  to  the  upper  surface  of  such  hearth. 

No  timber  must  be  laid  nearer  than  18  inches  to  any  door  of 
communication  through  party  walls,  through  warehouses  or  stables. 

Bressummers,  story  posts,  and  plates  thereto,  are  only  permitted 
in  the  ground  story,  and  may  stand  fair  with  the  ouiside  of  the 
wall,  but  must  go  no  deeper  than  2  inches  into  a  party  wall,  nor 
nea-rer  than  7  inches  to  the  centre  of  a  party  wall,  where  it  is  two 
bricks  thick,  nor  nearer  than  4  inches  and  a  half,  provided  the 
party  wall  does  not  exceed  one  brick  and  half  in  thickness. 

Every  cornerstory  post  must  be  of  oak,  at  least  12  inches  square 
when  employed  for  the  support  of  two  fronts. 

Window  frames  and  door  frames  to  the  first,  second,  third,  and 


GO 


CARPENTRY. 


fourth  rate  classes,  are  to  be  recessed  in  reveals,  4  inches  at 
least. 

Doorcases  and  doors  to  warehouses  only  of  the  first,  second, 
third  or  fourth  rate  classes  may  stand  fair  with  the  outward  face  of 
the  wall. 

No  external  decoration  to  be  of  wood,  except  cornices  or  dres- 
sings to  shop  windows,  frontispieces  to  door-ways  of  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  rate  classes,  covered  ways  or  porticos  to  build- 
ings;  but  not  to  project  beyond  the  original  line  of  the  house  in 
any  street.or  way ;  such  covered  way  or  portico  not  to  be  covered 
with  wood. 

Nor  such  cornice,  covered  way,  or  the  roof  of  portico  to  be 
higher  than  the  under  side  of  the  cill  to  the  windows  of  the  one 
pair  of  stairs  floor. 

No  flat  gutter  or  roof,  nor  any  turret  dormer,  or  lanthorn  light, 
or  other  erection  placed  on  the  flat  of  the  roof  belonging  to  the 
first,  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  rate  classes  to  be  of  wood  or 
timber 

No  wooden  water  trunks  must  be  higher  from  the  ground,  than 
the  tops  of  the  windows  of  the  ground  story. 


PLATE  VII. 

Fig.  1  the  axe  used  in  chopping  timber  by  a  reciprocal  circu- 
lar  motion,  generally  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  with  the  cutting  edge 
in  that  plane. 

Fig.  2  the  adze  used  also  in  chopping  timber  by  a  reciprocal 
motion,  generally  in  a  vertical  plane,  but  with  the  cutting  edge 
perpendicular  to  the  plane,  and  thereby  forming  a  horizontal 
surface. 

Fig.  3  the  socket  chisel  used  in  mortising;  it  must  be  observed, 
that  the  socket  chisel  is  not  always  the  breadth  of  the  mortise,  bu* 
generally  less,  particularly  when  the  mortise  is  very  wide. 

Fig.  4  mortise  and  tenon  guage. 


V.S.Bai-rtur^.Se. 


4 


CARPENTRY. 


61 


Fig.  5  the  carpenters*  square. 

Fig.  6  the  plumb  rule. 

Fig.  7  the  level. 

Fifj.  8  the  auger. 

Fig.  9  a  hook  pin  for  drawboring. 

Fig.  10  the  crow. 


PLATE  VIII. 

Fig.  1  the  manner  of  cocking  tie  beams  with  the  wall  plates 
fitted  together.    See  §  25. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  by  which  the  cocking  joint  is  fitted 
together,  No.  1  part  of  the  end  of  the  tie  beam,  with  the  notch  to 
receive  the  part  between  the  notches  in  No.  2,  which  is  a  part  of 
the  wall  plate.    See  §  25. 

Fig.  3  dove-tail  cocking;  No.  1  the  male  or  exterior  dove-tail  cut 
out  on  the  end  of  the  tie  beam :  No.  2  the  female  or  interior  dove-tail 
cut  out  of  the  wall  plate,  to  receive  the  male  dove-tail.    See  §  24. 

Fig.  4  the  manner  of  joining  two  pieces  together  to  form  a 
right  angle,  so  that  each  piece  will  only  be  extended  on  one  side 
of  the  other,  by  halving  the  pieces  together,  or  taking  a  notch  out 
of  each,  half  the  thickness.    See  §  26. 

Fig.  5  two  pieces  joined  together,  forming  four  right  angles, 
when  one  piece  only  exceeds  the  breadth  of  the  other  by  a  very 
short  distance  :  No.  2  the  socket  of  one  piece,  which  receives  the 
neck  or  substance  of  the  other.  This  and  the  preceding  are  both 
employed  in  joining  wall  plates  at  the  angle  ;  but  the  latter  is  pre- 
ferable,  when  the  thickness  of  walls  will  admit  of  it. 

Fig.  6  the  method  of  fixing  angle  ties :  No.  1  part  of  angle 
tie,  with  part  of  the  wall  plate  :  No.  2  the  wall  plate,  vshowing  the 
socket  or  female  dove-tail.  Though  the  angle  tie  is  here  shown 
flush  with  the  wall,  in  order  to  show  the  manner  of  connecting  the 
two  pieces  together ;  the  angle  tie  is  seldom,  or  never  let  down 
flush,  as  this  would  not  only  weaken  the  angle  tie,  but  also  the 
plate  into  which  it  is  framed.    See  §  27. 


62 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE  IX. 

Fig.  1  plan  of  a  floor  where  the  joists  would  have  too  great  a 
bearing  without  a  girder,  and  where  the  walls  in  the  middle  of  the 
apartment  are  perforated  with  windows  below.  If  there  were  no 
wiDdows,  the  place  of  the  girder  would  be  obviously  in  the  middle 
of  the  wallj  in  order  to  make  the  strongest  floor  out  of  timber  of 
given  scantlings,  or  to  make  it  equally  strong  with  the  least  quan- 
tity of  timber ;  but  as  there  is  an  opening,  and  if  the  end  of  the 
girder  were  to  be  laid  over  that  opening,  it  would  render  the  walls 
liable  to  fracture,  which  would  be  still  a  greater  error  than  the  for- 
mer ;  to  avoid  this  evil,  the  girder  must  then  lie  upon  a  solid  pier, 
and  to  make  the  best  of  this  circumstance,  so  as  to  be  at  the  least 
expense  in  timber,  or  to  make  the  strongest  floor  out  of  given  tim- 
bers, the  end  of  the  girder  must  be  placed  as  near  to  the  aperture 
as  possible,  so  as  to  have  a  solid  bearing,  and  the  other  end  as  far 
distant  from  the  middle  line,  upon  the  alternate  side  of  this  line ; 
and  thus  the  middle  of  the  girder  would  still  be  in  the  middle  of 
the  length.  Some  objections  may  be  raised  against  this  method  of 
placing  the  girder,  as  it  only  divides  the  centre  joists  equally;  but 
the  answer  to  this  is,  that  the  greatest  stress  upon  the  floor  is  al- 
ways in  the  middle:  and  therefore,  as  the  joists  are  equally  divided 
in  the  middle,  there  is  the  greatest  strength  where  there  is  most 
occasion  for  it ;  and  likewise,  taking  all  circumstances  together, 
the  middle  is  not  capable  of  sustaining  the  same  weight  as  other 
parts  of  the  floor  nearer  to  the  extremes  are  :  however,  it  still  re- 
mains  as  a  question,  whether  a  girder  placed  in  this  position,  or 
stronger  joists  running  the  other  way,  would  make  the  cheapest 
Hoor  :  this  I  shall  leave,  as  circumstances  in  practice  may  determine. 


Fig.  1.  Explanation  of  the  Timbers  in  a  single  Floor, 

A,  A,  A,  &c.  plan  of  walls, 

B,  B,  B.  the  flues  of  chimnies. 


/ 


CARPENTRY. 


63 


C,  C,  C,  the  upper  side  of  wall  plates. 

D,  D,  girder. 

E,  E,  fire-places. 

e/,  e /*,  e/,  &;c.  tail  bays  of  joists  framed  into  girder. 

gh,  gh,  g  h,  tail  trimmers  framed  into  trimming  joists,  m  order 
to  prevent  the  ends  of  the  timbers  as  much  as  possible  from  going 
into  the  wall,  according  to  the  Building  Act. 

ikjiJc,  hearth  trimmers. 

m  0  a.  quarter  partition  between  rooms. 

71  op  a  nine  inch  wall,  inclosing  stairs. 


Fig.  2.  Explanation  of  the  Timbers  in  a  double  Floor. 

In  this,  the  plans  of  the  walls,  flues  of  chimnies,  and  upper  side 
of  wall  plates  are  denoted  by  the  same  letters  as  the  same  things 
in  the  preceding  explanation  are.  The  other  parts  are  as  follow  : 

ab,ab,  ab,  binding  joists. 

cd,cd,  c  dj  &c.  bridging  joists. 

ef,  stair  trimmer. 

g  hy  single  joists  framed  into  stair  trimmer. 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  observe,  in  this  explanation,  that  any 
fow  or  compartment  or  joisting  to  which  the  flooring  boards  are 
attached,  whether  in  a  double  or  single  floor,  between  any  two 
adjacent  supports,  is  called  a  bay  of  joisting ;  a  bay  of  joisting 
xext  to  the  wall,  is  called  a  tail  bay  :  and  those  between  two  gird- 
ers, or  between  two  binding  joists,  are  called  case  bays :  thus  in 
fig.  1  the  joisting  on  either  side  of  the  girder  is  called  a  tail  bay: 
and  in  fig.  2  there  are  two  case  bays,  and  two  tail  bays. 

In  the  framing  of  floors,  some  persons  leave  the  stair  trimmer 
out  until  the  stairs  are  put  up,  and  then  the  trimmer  is  put  up  by 
the  stair  case  hand,  or  joiner. 


G4 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE  X. 

Fig.  1  section  of  a  double  floor,  with  a  girder,  taken  trans 
versely  to  the  bridging  joists 
A  section  of  girder. 
B  C,  B  C  binding  joists. 
df  dy  d,  &c.  ends  of  bridging  joists. 

c,  e,  e,  &c.  ends  of  ceiling  joists,  chace  mortised  into  binding 
joists. 

Fig.  2  section  of  a  double  floor,  taken  transversely  to  the  bind- 
ing  joist. 

A,  A  sections  of  the  binding  joists. 
B  C  part  of  a  bridging  joist. 
D  E  ceiling  joists. 
E  F,  E  F  parts  of  ceiling  joists. 

Figures  3,  4,  5,  6,  show  the  manner  of  scarfing  or  lengthening 
of  beams. 

Fig.  3  an  oblique  plain  scarf. 

Fig.  4  a  single  oblique  tabled  scarf. 

Fig.  5  a  parallel  scarf  keyed  together. 

Fig.  6  the  method  of  building  beams  with  small  pieces. 

The  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  figures  must  be  firmly  bolted  with  at 
least  two  bolts.  Fig;  4  and  5  have  each  an  opening  for  a  key  to  be 
driven  through,  which  must  be  done  previously  to  the  bolting. 
These  beams  would  be  much  stronger  at  the  scarfing,  if  an  iron 
strap  were  placed  on  each  side  of  it,  in  order  to  resist  the  heads 
and  nuts  of  the  screws  more  effectually  than  the  wood. 

Fig.  7  a  truss  for  a  span  roof. 

A,  A  wall  plates. 

B  C  tie  beam. 

C  D  king  post,  crown  post,  or  middle  post. 

E  F,  E  F  struts.  • 

g  h,  g  h  puncheons. 

I  G,  I  G  principal  raflers. 

K,  K  pole  plate. 


# 


CARPENTRY. 


G5 


L,  L  sections  of  purlines. 
K  M,  K  M  small  rafters. 
M  M  ridge  piece  section 


PLATE  XI 

The  framing  for  a  small  wooden  house,  the  lower  story  construct- 
ed of  9  inch  brick  work,  being  more  secure  against  external  vio. 
lence,  and  the  upper  part  of  4  and  a  half  inch  stud  work,  to  be 
covered  with  lath  and  plaster.  This  house  is  supposed  to  be  con^ 
structed  where  timber  is  abundant,  and  brick  or  stone  expensive. 
The  ground  story.  Fig.  1,  consists  of  a  passage,  front  and  back 
parlour;  the  one-pair  story  may  be  a  drawing  room,  and  back 
room,  which  may  communicate  by  means  of  a  pair  of  folding 
doors;  the  upper  story,  which  is  partly  taken  out  of  the  roof,  may 
be  divided  into  bed  rooms.  If  two  adjoining  houses  were  to  be 
built  on  the  present  plan,  placing  the  fire  places  of  the  contiguous 
back  to  back,  so  that  the  same  wall,  containing  the  flues,  may  be 
common  to  both,  it  would  not  only  be  a  great  saving,  but  strengthen 
the  whole.  The  partition  between  the  back  rooms  of  the  two 
houses  is  of  wood,  and  the  fire  place  is  placed  in  the  angle  of  each 
room,  the  brick  work  being  continued  from  the  front  in  order  to 
receive  it.  The  end  or  gable,  is  constructed  entirely  of  stud  work, 
to  be  lathed  and  plastered.  Not  only  two  contiguous  houses  may 
be  done  in  this  manner,  but  any  series  of  houses  forming  a  street, 
by  constructing  every  alternate  wall  with  flues,  and  every  other 
intervening  wall  of  stud  work.  The  rear  fronts  will  consist  en- 
tirely of  stud  work.  Wooden  houses  ought  always  to  stand  upon 
a  stone  or  brick  foundation ;  if,  instead  of  the  parlour,  the  front 
room  were  a  shop,  and  the  window  extending  from  the  door  to  the 
wall,  then  there  would  be  no  occasion  for  any  brick  work,  and  the 
whole  would  be  constructed  of  stud  work,  excepting  the  party  wall 
for  the  flues.    Houses  constructed  of  wood  are  forbidden  in  Lon- 

don,  by  the  Building  Act:  also  all  interior  timbers,  within  a  certain 
Nos.  5  &  6.  H 


06 


CARPENTRY. 


distance  of  chimnies,  as  the  foregoing  abstract  which  contains 
what  belongs  to  the  carpenter,  shows :  however,  they  are  much 
used  in  country  towns,  where  they  are  not  bound  under  such  re- 
strictions. 

Fig.  1  plan. 

Fig.  2  elevation. 

Fig.  3  gable  flank,  or  division  between  houses. 
A  B,  B  C  ground  plates,  or  ground  sills. 

B  D,  B  E,  C  F  principal  posts,  extending  the  whole  height  of 
.the  building,  from  the  ground  plate  to  the  roof  plate. 

A  G,  H  I,  K  L  story  posts  :  all  intermediate  posts  are  also  called 
•story  post3,  which  extend  in  altitude  from  floor  to  floor. 

G  P,  I  Q,  R  S,  T  U  bressummers,  supported  by  the  story  posts  : 
the  bressummers  RS,  TU  are  also  interstices,  being  framed  be- 
tween posts,  which  in  this  example  are  principal  posts. 

M  N,  D  O  Fig.  2  the  edges,  E  P,  P  F  the  sides  of  the  extreme 
rafters. 

All  the  oblique  pieces,  or  those  which  are  placed  diagonally 
within  the  framing,  are  called  braces. 

The  tie  beam  is  not  placed  at  the  feet  of  the  rafters,  but  higher, 
in  order  to  give  head  room,  in  consequence  of  which  a  brace  is 
extended  from  the  foot  of  each  story  post,  adjacent  to  the  middle, 
in  the  upper  story,  to  each  rafter  foot;  and  as  these  braces  per- 
form  the  office  of  ties  in  this  situation,  they  ought  to  be  well 
strapped  at  the  ends. 

Fig.  4  a  longitudinal  purline  truss. 

Fig.  5  a  longitudinal  truss,  placed  vertically  under  the  ridge 
for  supporting  the  intermediate  rafters,  and  restraining  them  from 
descending  down  the  inclined  plane,  and  thereby  preventing  all 
lateral  pressure  from  the  walls  ;  for  it  is  evident,  that  if  the  upper 
*^nds  of  the  rafters  are  held  in  their  situation,  the  lower  ends  would 
describe  vertical  circles,  and  from  their  gravity  would  descend, 
and  consequently  approach  nearer  together,  and  therefore,  instead 
of  pushing  out  the  walls,  would  rather  have  a  tendency  to  draw 
ihem  in.    This  principle,  as  well  as  trussing  the  inclined  sides  of 


CARPEiNTRY. 


67 


a  roof,  was  discovered  by  the  author  many  years  ago,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  dispute,  in  which  he  was  chosen  arbiter  on  behalf  of 
the  architect ;  but  the  principle  was  so  bad,  that  he  was  under  the 
disagreeable  necessity  of  giving  judgment  in  favour  of  the  con- 
tractor. 


LAW  REGULATING  BUILDLNGS  IN  THE  CITY  OF 
NEW  YORK. 

The  fire  limits  include  all  that  fart  of  the  city  laying  south  of  a  line 
beginning  upon  the  North  River,  opposite  Spring  street,  then  run- 
ning up  Spring  street  to  Broadway,  up  Broadway  to  Art  street, 
from  Broadway  along  Houston  street  to  the  Bowery,  down  the 
Bowery  to  Division  street,  from  thence  up  Division  street  to  Gover- 
neur  streets,  down  Governeur  street  to  the  East  River,  including 
one  hundred  feet  on  the  northerly  and  easterly  sides  of  said  line, 
except  that  of  Division  street :  and  the  regulations  of  buildings 
extend  to  one  hundred  feet  north  of  Fourteenth  street. 


An  Act  to  amend  the  Acts  heretofore  passed  for  the  prevention  of 
Fires  in  the  City  of  New  Yorh. — Passed  April  20th,  1830. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and 
Assembly:  Do  enact  as  follows — 

Walls— Roof 

§  1.  The  outside  and  party  walls  of  all  dwelling  houses,  store 
houses,  and  other  buildings  hereafter  to  be  erected,  or  built  within 
the  fire  limits  of  the  City  of  New  York,  as  the  same  now  exist,  or 
may  hereafter  be  extended,  shall  be  constructed  of  stone  or  brick. 

2.  The  outside  and  party  walls  of  such  buildings  shall  not  be 
less  than  eight  inches  thick,  except  flues  of  chimnies,  in  any  part 


68 


CARPENTRY. 


thereof;  and  the  party  or  end  walls  of  such  buildings  shall  rise 
and  be  extended  to  the  roof,  and  so  far  through  the  same  as  to 
meet  and  be  joined  to  the  slate,  tile  or  other  covering  thereof,  by 
a  layer  of  mortar  or  cement. 

3.  The  planking  or  sheeting  of  the  roof  of  any  such  building 
shall  in  no  case  be  extended  across  the  party  or  end  walls  thereof; 
and  all  such  buildings,  and  the  top  and  sides  of  all  dormer  windows 
therein,  shall  be  roofed  or  covered  with  tile,  slate  or  other  fire  proof 
material. 

4.  All  beams  or  other  timbers  in  the  party  walls  of  such  build- 
ings shall  be  separated  from  each  other  at  least  four  inches,  by 
brick  or  mortar ;  and  all  plate  pieces  in  the  front  or  rear  walls 
thereof  shall  recede  from  the  outside  of  the  wall  at  least  four  inches ; 
and  such  wall  shall  be  built  up  and  extended  to  the  slate  or  other 
fire-proof  covering  of  the  roof. 

5.  All  discharging  or  arch  pieces,  used  in  the  chimneys  of  any 
such  building,  shall  recede  from  any  flue  in  any  such  chimney  ai 
least  four  inches.  No  such  chimney  shall  be  started  or  built  upon 
the  floor  of  the  building,  or  be  cut  off  to  be  supported  below  by 
wood ;  and  all  hearths  shall  be  supported  with  arches  of  stone  or 
brick. 

6.  No  timber  shall  be  used  in  the  front  or  rear  of  any  building, 
within  such  fire  limits,  where  stone  is  now  commonly  used.  Each 
lintel  on  the  inside  of  the  front  or  rear  wall  of  every  such  kuilding 
shall  have  a  secure  brick  arch  over  it,  and  no  bond  timber  in  any 
wall  thereof  shall,  in  width  and  thickness,  exceed  the  width  and 
thickness  of  a  course  of  brick  ;  and  such  bond  timber  shall  be  laid 
at  least  eighteen  inches  apart  from  each  other  on  either  side  of 
any  wall  respectively. 

7.  All  wooden  gutters  of  any  such  building  over  thirty  feet  in 
height  from  the  level  of  the  side-walk  to  the  foot  of  the  rafter>^, 
ishali  be  lined  or  covered  on  the  upper  surface  thereof  with  copper, 
zmc,  or  other  fire  proof  material. 

8.  All  scuttles  on  any  such  buildings  shall  be  made  or  coveu  c 
mth  copper,  zinc,  iron,  or  other  fire  oroof  material ;  and  all  v 


CARPENTRY. 


69 


dovv  shutters  and  doors  in  the  rear  of  any  such  building,  if  such 
building  be  over  thirty  feet  in  height  as  aforesaid,  which  shall  be 
used  as  a  warehouse,  or  storehouse  for  goods,  shall  be  made  of 
iron  or  copper. 

9.  All  plate  pieces  in  any  such  building  as  is  described  or  men- 
tioned in  the  first  section  of  this  Act,  shall  be  firmly  secured  with 
iron  anchors,  and  the  cornice  of  every  such  building  shall  be  hung 
m  iron  anchors. 

10.  The  anchors  so  to  be  used  at  each  end  of  any  such  cornice 
shall  be  at  least  four  feet  long,  including  an  angle  of  at  least  one  foot, 
and  shall  be  worked  or  built  into  the  side  or  end  walls  of  the  build- 
ing ;  and  such  anchors  used  for  supporting  the  centre  of  the  cor- 
nice shall  return  down  the  front  of  the  building  on  the  inner  side, 
and  shall  be  firmly  secured  to  the  front  beam. 

11.  Every  building  of  more  than  thirty  feet  in  height  from  the 
level  of  the  sidewalk  to  the  foot  of  the  rafters,  which  shall  hereaf- 
ter  be  erected  or  built  to  the  southward  of  a  line  distant  one  hun- 
dred feet  north  of  the  northerly  side  of  Fourteenth  street,  shall  be 
subject  to  all  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

12.  Every  building  within  the  fire  limits,  as  the  same  now 
exist,  or  may  hereafter  be  extended,  which  may  hereafter  be  dam- 
aged by  fire  to  an  amount  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  whole  value 
thereof,  after  the  lapse  of  at  least  fifteen  years  from  the  time  of  its 
first  erection,  shall  be  repaired  or  rebuilt  according  to  the  provi- 
sions of  this  Act. 

13.  The  amount  or  extent  of  such  damage  may  be  determined 
by  three  indifferent  persons  resicJing  in  the  said  City,  one  of  whom 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  owner  or  owners  of  the  building,  another 
by  the  fire-wardens  of  the  ward  in  which  such  building  is  situated, 
and  the  third  by  the  two  persons  so  appointed,  and  the  decision  in 
writing  of  such  three  persons,  or  of  any  two  of  them,  shall  be  final 
and  conclusive,  in  all  cases  where  such  mode  of  determining  the 
extent  of  such  damage  shall  have  been  agreed  upon. 

14.  All  roofs,  steeples,  cupolas,  and  spires  of  churches,  or  other 

public  buildings,  Cwhere  such  public  buildmg  shall  stand  at  least 
G  2  ' 


70 


CARPENTRY. 


ten  feet  distant  from  any  and  every  other  building,)  may  be  co- 
vered  with  boards  or  shingles. 

15.  Public  buildings,  as  mentioned  in  the  last  preceding  section, 
are  hereby  defined  to  be  such  buildings  as  shall  be  owned  and  oc- 
cupied for  public  purposes,  by  this  State,  the  United  States,  the  Cor- 
poration of  the  City  of  New  York,  or  the  Public  School  Society. 

16.  All  privies  not  exceeding  ten  feet  square  and  fifteen  feet  in 
height,  and  all  fire  engine  houses  belonging  to  the  Corporation  of 
the  said  City,  and  all  lime  and  ferry  houses  which  shall  be  erected 
with  the  express  permission  of  the  said  Corporation,  may  be  built 
and  covered  with  wood,  boards,  or  shingles. 

17.  The  owner  or  owners  of  any  building  who  shall  violate  any 
of  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  Act,  shall,  for  every  such  offence, 
forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  ;  and  every  builder 

^  who  shall  be  employed,  or  assist  in  so  doing,  whether  he  be  an 
owner  of  such  building  or  not,  shall,  for  every  such  ofience,  forfeit 
and  pay  the  additional  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 

18.  The  foregoing  provisions  of  this  Act  shall  not  apply  to  any 
building  heretofore  erected  by  any  lessee,  or  lessees,  or  other  per- 
son possessed  of  a  leasehold  interest  in  any  lands,  tenements,  or 
hereditaments,  and  which  by  any  express  exception  in  any  law 
heretofore  passed,  relative  to  the  prevention  of  fires  in  the  City  of 
New  York,  would  be  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  suzh  law. 

19.  All  ash  holes  or  ash  houses  within  the  said  City  shall  be 
built  of  stone  or  brick,  without  the  use  of  wood  in  any  part  thereof. 

20.  No  wooden  shed  exceeding  twelve  feet  in  height,  at  the 
peak  or  highest  part  thereof,  shall*be  erected  witi.in  the  fire  limits 
of  the  said  City,  as  the  same  now  exist,  or  m  v  hereaftei  be  ex- 
tended. 

'  21.  No  wooden  building  shall  be  raised,  enlarred,  i  built  upon, 
or  removed  from  one  lot  to  any  other  lot,  withir  such  fire  limits  as 
the  same  now  exist,  or  may  hereafter  be  extended. 

22.  The  owner  or  owners  of  any  ash  house,  or  ash  hole,  wooden 
shed,  or  wooden  building,  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions 
of  the  nineteenth,  twentieth,  or  twenty-first  sections  of  this  Act, 


CARPENTRY. 


71 


and  every  master  builder  who  may  be  employed,  or  assist  therein, 
shall,  for  every  such  offence,  severally  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars :  and  such  owner  or  owners  shall 
forfeit  and  pay  the  additional  sum  of  fifty  dollars  for  every  twenty, 
four  hours  during  which  such  ash  house  or  ash  hole,  wooden  shed, 
or  wooden  building  shall  remain,  in  violation  of  any  such  provision 
after  due  notice  shall  have  been  given  to  remove  the  same. 

23.  Every  hou?e,  shed,  or  other  building  of  any  descripti<»n 
whatsoever  hereinbefore  mentioned,  which  shall  hereafter  be  erect- 
ed;  built,  roofed,  repaired,  altered,  enlarged,  built  upon,  or  remov. 
ed,  contrary  to  any  of  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  Act,  shall 
be  deemed  a  common  nuisance. 

24.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  or  persons  to  have  or 
keep  any  quantity  of  gunpowder  exceeding  twenty-eight  pounds  in 
weight,  in  any  one  house,  store,  building,  or  other  place  in  the 
City  of  New  York,  to  the  southward  of  a  line  running  through  the 
centre  of  Fourteenth  street,  f»om  the  North  to  the  East  River,  or 
to  lade,  receive,  have  or  keep  any  greater  quantity  of  gunpowder 
than  as  aforesaid,  on  board  of  any  ship,  vessel,  boat,  or  other  water 
craft  whatever,  within  three  hundred  yards  from  any  wharf,  pier 
or  slip  in  that  part  of  the  City  lying  southward  of  the  said  line. 

25.  All  gunpowder  which  may  be  kept  in  the  said  City,  or  oh 
board  of  any  ship,  vessel,  boat,  or  other  water  craft,  to  the  south- 
ward  of  the  line  mentioned  in  the  last  section,  shall  bo  kept  in 
stone  jugs  or  tin  canisters,  which  shall  not  contain  mo'-s  u^m. 
seven  pounds  each. 

26.  If  any  person  or  persons  shall  have  or  keep  any  gunpowder 
in  the  City  of  New  Y'^ork,  or  on  board  of  any  ship,  vessel,  boat,  or 
other  water  craft,  to  the  southward  of  the  said  line,  in  any  manner 
contrary  to  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  Act,  either  as  to  quan- 
tit y  or  as  to  the  manner  of  keeping  the  same,  he,  she,  or  ihey  shall 
forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  for 
every  hundred  pounds  of  gunpowder  so  had  or  kept,  and  in  that 
proportion  for  a  greater  or  less  quantity ;  and  all  such  gunpowder 
shall  be  forfeited  to  the  Fire  Department  of  the  said  Citv. 


12  CARPENTRY. 

27.  The  commander,  or  owner  or  owners  of  every  ship,  or  other 
vessel,  arriving  in  the  harbour  of  New  York,  and  having  more  than 
twenty-eight  pounds  of  gunpowder  on  board,  shall  within  forty- 
eight  hours  after  such  arrival,  and  before  such  ship  or  vessel  shall 
approach  within  three  hundred  yards  of  any  wharf,  pier,  or  slip, 
to  the  southward  of  a  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  Fourteenth- 
street  as  aforesaid,  cause  the  said  gunpowder  to  be  landed  by 
means  of  a  boat,  or  boats,  or  other  small  craft,  at  any  place  with- 
out the  said  limits,  which  may  be  most  contiguous  to  any  maga- 
zine for  storing  gunpowder,  and  shall  cause  the  caid  gunpowder 
to  be  stored  in  such  magazine,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  the  same  to 
the  Fire  Department  of  the  City  of  New-York. 

28.  It  shall  be  lawful  either  to  proceed  with  any  such  ship  or 
vessel  to  sea,  within  forty-eight  hours  after  her  arrival,  or  to 
transship  such  gunpowder  from  one  ship  or  vessel  to  another,  for 
the  purpose  of  immediate  exportation,  without  landing  such  gun- 
powder as  in  the  last  section  is  directed ;  but  in  neither  case  shall 
it  be  lawful  to  keep  such  gunpowder  for  a  longer  time  than  forty- 
eight  hours  in  the  harbour  of  New-York,  or  to  approach  with  the 
same  within  three  hundred  yards  of  any  wharf,  pier,  or  slip  in 
the  said. City,  to  the  southward  of  the  line  specified  in  the  last 
section,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  as  therein  mentioned. 

29.  All  gunpowder  which  shall  be  conveyed  or  carried  through 
any  of  the  streets  of  the  City  of  New-York,  in  any  cart,  carriage, 
wagon,  wheelbarrow,  or  otherwise,  shall  be  secured  in  tight  casV 
or  kegs,  well  headed  and  hooped,  each  of  which  shall  be  put  into 
and  entirely  covered  with  a  leather  bag  or  case,  sufficient  to  pre« 
vent  any  of  such  gunpowder  from  being  spilled  or  scattered  ;  and 
all  gunpowder  which  shall  be  conveyed  or  carried  through  any  of 
the  said  streets,  in  any  other  manner  than  as  above  directed,  shall 
be  forfeited  to  the  Fire  Department  of  the  said  City. 

30.  In  every  case  of  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  Act, 
where  the  penalty  prescribed  thereby  for  such  violation  is  the 
forfeiture  of  any  gunpowder  to  the  said  Fire  Department,  it  shall 
be  lawful  for  any  fire  warden  of  the  said  City  to  seize  such 


CARPENTRY. 


73 


gunpowder  in  the  day  time,  and  to  cause  the  same  to  be  convey- 
30  to  any  magazine  used  for  the  purpose  of  storing  gun- 
powder. 

31.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  wlio  shall  have  made 
any  such  seizure  forthwith  to  inform  the  Mayor  or  Recordei  and 
Miiv  two  Aldermen  of  the  said  City  thereof;  and  the  said  Mayor 
or  Recorder  and  Aldermen  shall  thereupon  mquire  into  the  fiicts 
and  circumstances  of  such  alleged  violation  and  seizure,  for  which 
purpose  they  may  summon  any  person  or  persons  to  testify  before 
them,  and  they  shall  have  power,  in  their  discretion,  to  order  any 
gunpowder  so  seized  to  be  restored. 

32.  Whenever  any  inhabitants  of  the  said  City  shall  make  oath 
before  the  Mayor,  or  Recorder,  or  any  two  Aldermen,  or  any  two 
of  the  Special  Justices  thereof,  of  any  fact  or  circumstance  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  said  Mayor,  Recorder,  Aldermen,  or  Special 
Justices,  shall  afford  a  reasonable  cause  of  suspicion,  that  any 
gunpowder  has  been  brought,  or  is  kept,  within  the  said  City,  or 
in  the  harbour  thereof,  contrary  to  any  provision  contained  in  this 
Act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  Mayor,  Recorder,  Aldermen,  or 
Special  Justices,  to  issue  his  or  their  warrant  or  warrants,  under 
his  or  their  hand  and  seal,  to  any  sheriff,  marshal,  constable,  or 
other  fit  person  or  persons,  commanding  him  or  them  to  search 
for  such  gunpowder  in  the  day  time,  wheresoever  the  same  may 
be  in  violation  of  this  Act,  and  to  seize  and  take  possession  of  the 
same  if  found  ;  but  no  person  having  or  acting  under  any  such 
search  warrant  shall  take  advantage  thereof  to  serve  any  civil 
process  whatsoever. 

33.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  any  person  or  persons  who  by  virtue 
of  any  such  warrant,  shall  have  seized  any  gunpowder,  to  cause 
the  same  within  twelve  hours,  in  the  day  time,  after  such  seizure, 
to  be  conveyed  to  any  magazine  used  for  storing  gunpowder,  and 
unless  the  said  Mayor  or  Recorder  and  any  two  Aldermen  of  the 
said  City,  should  in  the  manner  directed  by  the  thirty-first  section 
of  this  Act,  order  the  same  to  be  restored,  such  gunpowder  shall 
be  detained  in  such  magazine  until  it  shall  be  delermined  by  due 

I 


74 


CxVRPENTRY. 


course  of  law,  whether  the  same  may  have  become  forfeited  by 
virtue  of  this  Act. 

34.  All  actions  or  suits  for  the  recovery  of  any  gunpowder 
which  may  have  been  seized  and  stored  in  any  magazine,  by  virtue 
of  this  Act,  or  for  the  value  thereof,  or  for  damEiges  sustained  by 
the  seizure  or  detention  thereof,  shall  be  brought  against  the  Fire 
department  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  shall  be  commenced 
wthin  three  calendar  months  next  after  such  seizure  shall  have 
been  actually  made ;  and  in  case  no  such  action  or  suit  shall 
have  been  commenced  within  such  period,  such  gunpowder 
shall  be  deemed  absolutely  forfeited  to  the  said  Fire  Department, 
and  may  be  immediately  delivered  to  the  proper  officers  thereof 
for  its  use.  No  penal  damages  shall  be  recovered  in  any  such 
action  or  suit,  and  such  gunpowder  may  at  any  time  during  the 
pendency  of  any  such  action  or  suit,  by  consent  of  the  parties 
thereto,  be  removed  from  any  magazine  where  the  same  may  have 
been  stored,  or  may  be  sold,  and  the  moneys  arising  from  such 
sale  may  be  paid  into  the  Court  where  such  suit  or  action  may  be 
^endmg,  to  abide  the  event  thereof, 

35.  Nothing  contained  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  apply  to 
any  ship  or  vessel  of  war  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  any  foreign  government  while  lying  distant  three  hundred  yards 
or  upwards  from  the  Miiarves,  piers  or  slips  of  the  said  City. 

36.  If  any  gunpowder  exceeding  twenty-eight  pounds  in  quan- 
tity,  shall  be  found  in  the  possession  or  custody  of  any  person,  by 
any  fireman  of  the  said  City,  during  any  fire  or  alarm  of  fire 
therein,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  fireman  to  seize  the  same  with- 
out any  warrant,  and  to  report  such  seizure  without  delay  to  the 
Mayor  or  Recorder' of  the  said  City,  and  it  shall  be  determined  by 
the  said  Mayor  or  Recorder  and  any  two  Aldermen  of  the  said 
City,  in  the  manner  directed  by  the  thirty-first  section  of  this  Act 
whether  such  gunpowder  should  be  restored,  or  the  same  shall  be 
conveyed  to  a  magazine  for  storing  gunpowder  and  there  detained, 
until  it  be  decided  by  due  course  of  law,  whether  such  gunpowder 
be  forfeited  by  virtue  of  this  Act. 


CARPENTRY. 


75 


37.  No  greater  quantity  of  sulphur  than  ten  hundred  weight,  or 
of  hemp  or  flax,  than  twenty  hundred  weight,  or  of  pitch,  tar,  tur- 
pentine, rosin,  spirits  of  turpentine,  varnish,  linseed  oil,  oil  of 
vitriol,  aquafortis,  aether,  or  shingles,  than  shall  be  allowed  by  the 
Common  Council  of  the  City  of  New  York,  shall  be  put,  kept,  or 
stored  in  any  one  place  in  the  said  City,  to  the  southward  of  a  line 
drawn  through  the  centre  of  Fourteenth  street,  unless  with  the 
permission  of  the  said  Common  Council. 

38.  Every  person  who  shall  violate  either  of  the  provisions  of 
tl'e  last  section,  shall  for  every  such  offence  forfeit  and  pay  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  dollars ;  and  in  case  any  such  person  or  per- 
sons shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  remove  any  of  the  articles  prohibited 
by  the  said  section,  within  such  time  as  may  be  allowed  for  that 
purpose  by  the  Mayor  or  Recorder,  or  any  two  Aldermen  of  the 
said  City,  he,  she  or  they  shall,  for  every  such  neglect  or  refusal, 
forfeit  and  pay  an  additional  sum  of  twenty. five  dollars. 

39.  Nothing  hereinbefore  contained  shall  be  construed  to  pro- 
hibit  any  ship  chandler  from  keeping  at  any  time,  in  any  enclo- 
sure in  the  said  City,  any  quantity  of  pitch,  tar,  rosin,  or  turpentine, 
not  exceeding  twenty  barrels  in  the  whole. 

40.  All  pecuniary  penalties  imposed  by  this  Act,  may  be  sued 
for  and  recovered  with  costs  of  suit,  in  any  court  having  cogni- 
zance  thereof,  by  the  proper  officers  of  the  Fire  Department  of 
the  said  City,  for  the  use  of  the  said  Fire  Department. 

41.  All  actions  for  any  forfeiture  or  penalty  incurred  under  this 
Act,  shall  be  commenced  within  one  year  next  after  the  time  of 
incurring  such  forfeiture  or  penalty. 

42.  All  laws  or  parts  of  laws,  heretofore  passed,  mconsistent 
with  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  are  hereby  declared  to  be  repealed ; 
but  such  repeal  shall  not  affect  any  suit  or  prosecution  already 
commenced,  or  any  penalty,  forfeiture,  or  offence  already  incurred 
or  committed  under  any  such  la  w  or  part  of  a  law. 


76 


CARPENTRY. 
LIEN  LAW. 


An  Act  for  the  better  security  of  Mechanics  and  others,  erecting 
Buildings  in  the  City  and  County  of  New  York, — Passed  April 
20,  1830. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and 
Assembly:  Do  enact  as  follows — 

§  L  Every  mechanic,  workman,  or  other  person,  doing  or  per- 
forming  any  work  towards  the  erection,  construction,  or  finishing 
of  any  building  in  the  city  of  New  York,  erected  under  a  contract 
in  writing,  between  the  owner  and  builder,  or  other  person,  whe- 
ther such  work  shall  be  performed  as  journeyman,  labourer,  cart- 
man,  sub-contractor,  or  otherwise,  and  whose  demands  for  work 
and  labour  done  and  performed  towards  the  erection  of  such 
building,  has  not  been  paid  and  satisfied,  may  deliver  to  the  ownef 
of  such  building  an  attested  account  of  the  amount  and  value  of  the 
work  and  labour  thus  performed  and  remaining  unpaid,  and  there- 
upon such  owner  shall  retain,  out  of  his  subsequent  payments  to  the 
contractor,  the  amount  of  such  work  and  labour  for  the  benefit  ol 
the  person  so  performing  the  same. 

2.  Whenever  any  account  of  labour  performed  on  a  building 
erected  under  a  contract  in  writing,  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  owner  of  such  building,  or  his  authorized 
agent,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  owner  or  agent  to  furnish  his  con- 
tractor with  a  copy  of  such  papers,  in  order  that  if  there  shall  be 
any  disagreement  between  such  contractor  and  his  creditor,  they 
may,  by  amicable  adjustment  between  themselves,  or  by  arbitration, 
ascertain  the  true  sum  due,  and  if  the  contractor  shall  not,  within 
ten  days  after  the  receipt  of  such  papers,  give  the  owner  written 
notice  that  he  intends  to  dispute  the  claim,  or  if  in  ten  days  after 
giving  such  notice,  he  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to  have  the  matter 
adjusted  as  aforesaid,  he  shall  be  considered  as  assenting  to  the 
demand,  and  the  owner  shall  pay  the  same  when  it  becomes  due 


CARPEiNTRY. 


77 


3.  If  any  such  contractor  shall  dispute  the  claim  of  his  journey- 
man or  other  person  for  work  and  labour  performed  as  aforesaid, 
and  if  the  matter  cannot  be  adjusted  amicably  between  themselves, 
it  shall  be  submitted,  on  the  agreement  of  the  parties,  to  the  ar- 
bitrament  of  three  disinterested  persons,  one  to  be  chosen  by  each 
of  the  parties,  and  one  by  the  two  thus  chosen,  and  the  decision  in 
writing,  of  such  three  persons,  or  any  two  of  them,  shall  be  final 
and  conclusive  in  the  case  submitted. 

4.  Whenever  the  amount  due  shall  be  adjusted  and  ascertained, 
as  above  provided,  and  if  the  contractor  shall  not,  within  ten  days 
after  it  is  so  adjusted  and  ascertained,  pay  the  sum  due  to  his  ere- 
ditor,  with  the  costs  incurred,  the  owner  shall  pay  the  same  out  of 
the  funds  as  above  provided,  and  which  amount  due  may  be  reco- 
vered  from  the  said  owner  by  the  creditor  of  the  said  contractor, 
in  an  action  for  money  had  and  received  to  the  use  of  said  creditor, 
and  to  the  extent  in  value  of  any  balance  due  by  the  owner  to  his 
contractor  under  the  contract  with  him  at  the  time  of  the  notice 
first  given  as  aforesaid,  or  subsequently  accruing  to  such  con- 
tractor  under  the  same,  if  such  amount  shall  be  less  than  the  sum 
due  from  the  said  contractor  to  his  creditor. 

6.  If  by  collusion,  or  otherwise,  the  owner  of  any  building  erect- 
ed by  contract  in  writing,  as  aforesaid,  shall  pay  to  his  contractor 
any  money  in  advance  of  the  sum  due  on  said  contract,  and  if  the 
amount  still  due  the  contractor,  after  such  payment  has  been  made, 
shall  be  insufficient  to  satisfy  the  demand,  made  in  conformity  with 
the  provisions  of  this  act,  for  work  and  labour  done  and  performed, 
the  owner  shall  be  liable  to  the  amount  that  would  have  been  due 
at  the  time  of  his  receiving  the  account  of  such  work,  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  no  such  payment  had  been  made. 


INDEX 


AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

I  SED  IN 

CARPENTRY. 

N.  B.  Tfiis  Mark  §  refers  to  the  preceding  Sections,  according  to 
the  Number. 

Adze,  §  5. 
Axe,  §  4. 
Auger,  §  10. 

B. 

Back  of  a  Hip  is  the  upper  edge  of  a  rafter,  between  the  two 
sides  of  a  hipped  roof  formed  to  an  angle  so  as  to  range  with 
the  rafters  on  each  side  of  it. 

Baulk,  a  piece  of  foreign  fir,  or  deal,  being  the  trunk  of  a  tree  of 
that  species  of  wood,  generally  brought  to  a  square,  for  the  use 
of  building.  In  London  the  term  is  only  applied  to  small  lengths, 
from  18  to  25  feet,  generally  under  10  inches  thick,  having  a 
considerable  taper,  and  the  wains  left,  so  that  the  baulk  is  not 
brought  to  a  square.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  these  obtair. 
the  name  of  Dram  timber,  as  coming  from  the  place  of  that 
name.    In  London  the  largest  pieces  of  timber,  such  as  Mcmel, 


CARPENTRY. 


79 


Dantzic,  cVc.  seem  to  have  no  common  appellation,  being  lami. 
liarly  called  pieces  of  timber,  and  frequently  by  the  vulgar  name 
of  sticks;  these  expressions  seem  to  define  nothing,  as  they  ap- 
ply equally  to  all  sizes.  Different  names  seem  to  obtain  in 
different  parts  of  the  country :  in  some  parts  of  the  north,  large 
pieces  of  fir  wood  are  called  logs ;  but  in  London  log  is  restric- 
ted to  the  largest  pieces  of  oak  or  mahogany. 

Beam,  a  horizontal  timber,  used  to  resist  a  force,  or  weight,  as  a 
tie-beam,  where  it  acts  as  a  string,  or  chain,  by  its  tension  ;  as 
a  collar  beam,  where  it  acts  by  compression ;  as  a  bressummer, 
where  it  resists  a  transverse  insisting  weight. 

Bearer,  any  thing  used  by  way  of  support  to  another. 

Bearing,  the  distance  that  a  beam  or  rafter  is  suspended  in  the 
clear :  thus  if  a  piece  of  timber  rests  upon  two  opposite  walls, 

the  span  of  the  void  is  called  the  bearing,  and  not  the  whole 

■p. 

length  of  the  timber. 
Beetle,  §  17. 

Board,  a  substance  of  wood  contained  between  two  parallel  planes; 
as  when  the  baulk  is  divided  into  several  pieces  by  the  pit  saw, 
the  pieces  are  called  boards.  The  section  of  boards  is  some- 
times, however,  of  a  triangular,  or  rather  a  trapazoidal  form,  that 
is  with  one  edge  very  thin :  these  are  called  feather  edged  boards. 

Bond  Timber,  §  33. 

Brace,  a  piece  of  slanting  timber,  used  in  truss  partitions,  or  in 
framed  roofs,  in  order  to  form  a  triangle,  and  thereby  rendering 
the  frame  immovable  ;  when  a  brace  is  used  by  way  of  suppoit 
to  a  rafter,  it  is  called  a  strut.  Braces  in  partitions,  and  span 
roofs,  are  always,  or  should  be,  disposed  in  pairs,  and  placed  in 
opposite  directions. 

Breaking  down,  in  sawing,  is  dividing  the  baulk  into  boards  or 
planks ;  but  if  planks  are  sawed  longitudinally  through  their 
thickness,  the  saw-way  is  called  a  ripping  cut,  and  the  former  a 
breaking  cut. 

Beessummkr,  or  Breastsummer,  a  beam  supporting  a  superincum- 
bent part  of  an  exterior  wall,  and  running  longitudinally  below 
that  part.    See  Summer. 


80 


CARPENTRY. 


Bridging  Joists  are  the  smallest  beams  in  naked  flooring,  for  sup. 

porting  the  boarding  for  walking  upon.    See  Plate, 
Bring  up.    See  Carry-up. 

C. 

Camber  is  the  convexity  of  a  beam  upon  the  upper  edge,  in  order 
to  prevent  its  becoming  straight  or  concave  by  its  own  weight, 
or  by  the  burden  it  may  have  to  sustain,  in  course  of  time. 

Camber  Beams  are  those  used  in  the  flats  of  truncated  roofs,  and 
raised  in  the  middle  with  an  obtuse  angle,  for  discharging  the 
rain  water  towards  both  sides  of  the  roof. 

Cantilevers  are  horizontal  rows  of  timbers,  projecting  at  right 
angles  from  the  naked  part  of  a  wall,  for  sustaining  the  eaves  or 
other  mouldings.  Sometimes  they  are  planed  on  the  horizon- 
tal and  vertical  sides,  and  sometigfies  the  carpentry  is  rough  and 
cased  with  joinery. 

Carcass  of  a  Building,  is  the  naked  walls,  and  the  rough  timber 
work  of  the  flooring  and  quarter  partitions,  before  the  building 
is  plastered,  or  the  floors  laid. 

Carpenter's  Square,  §  21. 

Carpentry,  §  1. 

Carry-up,  a  term  used  in  discourse  among  builders  and  workmen, 
denoting  that  the  walls,  or  other  parts,  are  intended  to  be  built 
to  a  certain  given  height ;  as  the  carpenter  will  say  to  the  brick, 
layer,  Carry-up  that  wall ;  carry-up  that  stack  of  chimnies,  i,  e, 
build  up  that  wall  or  stack  of  chimnies. 

Chisels,  §  6,  7,  and  8. 

Crown  Post,  the  middle  post  of  a  trussed  roof.    See  King  Post. 

D, 

Dbal  Timber,  the  timber  of  the  fir  tree,  as  cut  into  boards,  planks, 

&c.  for  the  use  of  building. 
Discharge,  is  a  post  trimmed  up  under  a  beam,  or  part  of  a  build 

ing  which  is  weak,  or  overcharged  by  weight. 
DuRMER,  or  Dormer  Window,  is  a  prqjectinxr  window  in  the  roof 


CARPKiNTRY. 


81 


of  a  house,  the  glass  frame,  or  casement,  being  set  vertically,  and 
not  in  the  inclined  sides  of  the  roof ;  thus  dormers  are  distingushed 
from  sky-lights,  which  have  their  sides  inclined  to  the  horizon. 
Dovetail  Notch,  §  27. 

Dragon  Beam,  the  piece  of  timber  which  supports  the  hip  ratter, 

and  bisects  the  angle  formed  by  the  wall  plates. 
Draw  Bore  Pins.    See  Joinery. 

E. 

Enter,  wiien  the  end  of  a  tenon  is  put  into  a  mortise,  it  is  said  to 

enter  the  mortise.  ^ 
EntertIce.    See  Intertie. 

F. 

Feather-edged  Boards.    See  Board. 

FiLLiNGaN-PiECEs,  short  timbers  less  than  the  full  length,  as  £h. 

jack  rafters  of  a  roof,  the  puncheons,  or  short  quarters  in  parti. 

tions,  between  braces  and  sills,  or  head-pieces. 
Fm  P^LE,  small  trunks  of  fir  trees,  from  10  to  16  feet  in  length, 

used  in  rustic  buildings,  and  out-houses. 
Firmer  Chisel,  §  7. 
Floor.    See  Naked  Flooring. 
Foundations,  §  33. 

FuRRiNGS,  are  slips  of  timber  nailed  to  joists  or  rafters,  in  order 
to  bring  them  to  a  level,  and  to  range  them  into  a  straight  sur. 
face,  when  the  timbers  are  sagged,  either  by  casting  or  by  a  set, 
which  they  have  obtained  by  their  weight  in  length  of  time. 

G. 

Gain,  a  term  now  out  of  use.    See  Tusk. 
Gauge,  §  11. 
Gimlet,  §  9. 

Girder,  the  principal  beam  in  a  floor  for  supporting  the  bind 

ing  joists. 
•   No«.  6.  K 


CARPENTRY 


Grooved  Notch,  §  29.    See  Plate  U.* 

Gbound  Plate,  or  Sill,  is  the  lowest  plate  of  a  wooden  building 
for  supporting  the  principal  and  other  posts.    See  Plate  V. 

H. 

Hammer,  §  16. 
Hand  Saw,  §  3. 
Hook  Pins,  §  20. 

Handspike,  a  lever  for  carrying  a  beam,  or  other  body,  the  weight 
being  placed  in  the  middle,  and  supported  at  each  end  by  a  man, 

1. 

Intektie,  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber,  framed  between  two  post'. 

in  order  to  tie  them  together. 
Jack  Timber,  a  timber  shorter  than  the  whole  length  of  other 

pieces  in  the  same  range. 
Jack  Rafters  are  all  those  short  rafters  which  meet  the  hips. 
Jack  Ribs  are  those  short  ribs  which  meet  the  angle  ribs,  as  in 

groins,  domes,  &ic. 
Joggle  Piece  is  a  truss  post,  with  shoulders  and  sockets  for  abutting 

and  fixing  the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 
Joining  of  Timbers,       22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27. 
Joists  are  those  beams  in  a  floor  which  support,  or  are  necessary  in 

the  supporting  of  th^  boarding  or  ceiHng,  as  the  binding,  bridg. 

ing,  and  ceilin  g  'oistfs ;  girders  are,  however,  to  be  excepted,  as 

not  being  joists. 

Juffers,  stuff  of  about  four  or  five  inches  square,  and  of  severol 
lengths.  Thm  term  is  out  of  use,  though  frequently  found  in  old 
books. 

K. 

King  Post,  the  middle  post  of  a  stuffed  roof,  for  supporting  the 

tie-beam  at  the  middle,  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 
Kekf,  the  Wiiy  made  by  the  saw  in  sawing  timber. 


CARPENTRY. 


83 


L. 

Law  regulating  buildings  in  the  City  of  New  York,  page  67, 
Level,  an  instrument  used  for  levelling  floors,  §  12. 
Lien  Law,  page  76. 

Lintels,  short  beams  over  the  heads  of  doors  and  windows,  foi 
supporting  the  inside  of  an  exterior  wall,  or  the  superincumbent 
part  over  doors,  ifi  brick  or  stone  partitions. 

Lutiiorn  windows.    See  Dormer. 

M. 

Mallet,  §  16. 

Mortise  and  Tenon,  §  31. 

N. 

Naked  Flooring,  the  timber  work  of  a  floor  for  supporting  the 

boarding  or  ceiling,  or  both. 
Notching,  §  28,  29. 

P. 

Pitch  of  a  Roof,  the  inclination  which  the  sloping  sides  make  with 
the  plane  or  level  of  the  wall-plate  ;  or  it  is  the  proportion  which 
arises  by  dividing  the  span  by  the  height.  Thus  if  it  is  asked, 
What  is  the  pitch  of  such  a  roof  ^  the  answer  is,  quarter,  3  quar- 
ters, or  half;  when  the  pitch  is  half,  the  roof  is  a  square,  which  is 
the  highest  now  in  use,  or  that  is  necessary  in  practice. 

Plank,  all  boards  above  nine  inches  wide,  are  called  planks. 

Plate,  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber  in  a  wall,  generally  flush 
with  the  inside,  for  resting  the  ends  of  beams,  joists,  or 
rafters,  and  is  therefore  denominated  floor,  or  roof  plates,  ac 
cordingly. 

Plumb  Rule,  §  14. 

Posts,  all  upright  or  vertical  pieces  of  timber,  whatever,  as  truss 
posts,  door  posts,  quarters  in  partitions,  &c. 


84 


CARPENTRY. 


Prick  Posts,  intermediate  posts  in  a  wooden  building  framed  be. 

tween  principal  posts. 
Principal  Posts,  the  corner  posts  of  a  wooden  building.  See 

Plate  V. 

PuDLAiEs,  pieces  of , timber  to  do  the  office  of  handspikes. 
Puncheons,  any  short  posts  of  timber;  the  small  quarterings  in  a 

stud  partition  above  the  head  of  a  door,  are  called  puncheons. 
PuRLiNES,  the  horizontal  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof,  for  sup- 

porting  the  spars  or  small  rafters, 

Q. 

Quarters,  the  timbers  to  be  used  in  stud  partitions,  bond  in 
walls,  dec. 

Quartering,  the  stud  work  of  a  partition. 

R. 

Rafters,  all  the  inclined  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof,  as  princi- 
pal  rafters,  hip  rafters,  and  common  rafters,  which  are  other, 
wise  called,  in  most  countries,  spars. 

Raising  Plates,  or  Top  Plates,  are  the  plates  on  which  the 
roof  is  raised. 

Rebated  Notch,  §  28. 

Ridge,  the  meeting  of  the  rafters  on  the  vertical  angle  of  the  roof. 

See  Plate  V. 
Ripping  Chisez,,  §  3, 
Ripping  Sav^,  §3, 

Roof,  the  covering  of  a  house  ;  but  the  word  is  used  in  carpen- 
try  for  the  wood  work  which  supports  the  slating  and  other 
covering. 

S. 

Saw,  §  3. 

Shaken  Stuff.  Such  timber  as  is  rent  or  split  by  the  heat  of  iho 
sun,  or  by  the  fall  of  the  tree,  is  said  to  be  shaken. 


CARPENTRY. 


85 


Shingles,  thin  pieces  of  wood  used  for  covering,  instead  of 
tiles,  &c. 

SaREADiNGs,  a  term  not  much  Jised  at  present.    See  Furrings, 

Skirts  of  a  Roof,  the  projecture  of  the  eaves. 

Sleepers,  pieces  of  timbers  for  resting  the  ground  joists  of  a  floor 
upon,  or  for  fixing  the  planking  to  in  a  bad  foundation.  The 
term  was  formerly  applied  to  the  valley  rafters  of  a  roof. 

Socket  Chisel,  §  6. 

Spars,  the  term  by  which  the  common  rafters  of  a  roof  are  best 
known  in  almost  every  provincial  town  in  Great  Britain,  though 
generally  called  in  London  commoxi  rafters,  in  order  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  principal  rafters. 

Stancheons.    See  PuncJiecKis, 

Struts,  pieces  of  timber  which  support  the  rafters,  and  which  are 

supported  by  the  truss  posts. 
Summer,  a  large  boam  in  a  buxMinj,  either  disposed  in  an  outside 

wall,  or  in  the  middle  dpcrtment,  parallel  to  such  wall. 

When  a  summer  iz  placed  uiidor  a  superincumbent  part  of  an 

outside  wall,  it  iz  irMod  a  bressummer,  us  it  comes  in  a  breast 

with  the  front  of  the  building. 
Studwokk,  §  33. 

T. 

Templets,  §  33. 
Tenon,  §  30. 

Tie,  a  piece  of  timber  placed  in  any  position  acting  as  a  string  or 
tie,  to  keep  two  things  together  which  have  a  tendency  to  a 
more  remote  distance  from  each  other. 

Timbers,  how  joined,  §§22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27. 

Troimers  are  joists  into  which  other  joists  are  framed. 

Trimming  Joists,  the  two  joists  into  which  a  trimmer  is  framed. 

Truncated  Roof,  is  a  roof  with  a  flat  on  the  top. 

Truss,  a  frame  constructed  of  several  pieces  of  limber,  and  divided 

into  two  or  more  triangles  by  oblique  pieces,  in  order  to  pre- 
II  2 


86 


CARPENTRY. 


vent  the  possibility  of  its  revolving  round  any  of  the  angles  of 
the  frame. 

Truss  Post,  any  of  the  posts  of  a  trussed  roof,  as  king  post, 

queen  post,  or  side  post,  or  posts  into  which  the  braces  are 

formed  in  a  trussed  partition. 
Trussed  Roof  is  one  so  constructed  within  the  exterior  triangu. 

lar  frame,  so  as  to  support  the  principal  rafters  and  the  tie 

beam,  at  certain  given  points. 
Tusk,  the  beveling  upper  shoulder  of  a  tenon,  in  order  to  give 

strength  to  the  tenon. 

V. 

Valley  Rafter,  that  which  is  disposed  to  the  internal  angle  of 
a  roof. 

W. 

(Yall  Plates,  are  the  joists'  plates,  and  raising  plates. 


JOINERY. 


§  1.  Joinery  is  a  branch  of  Civil  Architecture,  and  consists  of 
the  art  of  framing  or  joining  together  wood  for  internal  and  external 
finishings  of  houses ;  as  the  coverings  and  linings  of  rough  walls, 
or  the  coverings  of  rough  timbers,  and  of  the  construction  of 
doors,  windows,  and  stairs. 

Hence  joinery  requires  much  more  accurate  and  nice  work- 
manship than  carpentry,  which  consists  only  of  rough  timbers, 
used  in  supporting  the  various  parts  of  an  edifice.  Joinery  is  used 
by  way  of  decoration  only,  and  being  always  near  to  the  eye, 
requires  that  the  surfaces  should  be  smooth,  and  the  several  junc- 
tions  of  the  wood  be  fitted  together  with  the  greatest  exactnes-s. 

Smoothing  of  the  wood  is  called  planing,  and  the  tools  used  for 
the  purpose,  planes. 

The  wood  used  is  called  stuff,  and  is  previously  formed  into 
rectangular  prisms  by  the  saw;  these  prisms  are  denominated 
battens,  boards,  or  planks,  according  to  their  dimensions  in  breadth 
or  in  thickness.  For  the  convenience  of  planing,  and  other  opera- 
tions,  a  rectangular  platform  is  raised  upon  four  legs,  called  a 
bench. 


§  2.   The  Bench,    Pl.  12.  Fig.  1^. 

Consists  of  a  platform  A  B  C  D  called  the  top,  supported  upon 
four  legs,  E,  F,  G,  H.  Near  to  the  further  or  fore  end  A  B  is  an 
upright  rectangular  prismatic  pin  a,  made  to  slide  stiffly  in  a  mor- 


I 


6S  JOINERY. 

use  through  the  top.  This  pin  is  called  the  bench  hook,  which 
ought  to  be  so  tight  as  to  be  moved  up  or  down  only  by  a  blow  of 
a  hammer  or  mallet.  The  use  of  the  bench  hook  is  to  keep  the 
stuff  steady,  while  the  joiner,  m  the  act  of  planing,  presses  it 
forward  against  the  bench  hook.  D  I  a  vertical  board  fixed  to 
the  legs,  on  the  side  of  the  bench  next  to  the  workman,  and  made 
flush  with  the  legs  :  this  is  called  the  side  board.  At  the  farther  end 
of  the  side  board,  and  opposite  to  it,  and  to  the  bench  hook,  is  a 
rectangular  prismatic  piece  of  wood  b  ft,  of  which  its  two  broad 
surfaces  are  parallel  to  the  vertical  face  of  the  side  board :  this  is 
made  moveable  in  a  horizontal  straight  surface,  by  a  screw  passing 
through  an  interior  screw  fixed  to  the  inside  of  the  side  board,  and 
IS  called  the  screw  check.  The  screw  and  screw  check  are  to- 
gether called  the  bench  screw ;  and  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity, 
we  shall  denominate  the  two  adjacent  vertical  surfaces  of  the 
screw  check,  and  of  the  side  board,  the  checks  of  the  bench  screw. 
The  use  of  the  bench  screw  is  to  fasten  boards  between  the  checks, 
in  order  to  plane  their  edges  ;  but  as  it  only  holds  up  one  end  of  a 
board,  the  leg  II  of  the  bench  and  the  side  board  are  pierced  with 
holes,  sa  as  to  admit  of  a  pin  for  holding  up  the  other  end,  at 
various  heights,  as  occasion  may  require.  The  screw  check  has 
also  a  horizontal  piece  mortised  and  fixed  fast  to  it,  and  made 
to  slide  through  the  side  board,  for  preventing  it  turning  rounds 
and  is  therefore  called  the  guide. 

Benches  are  of  various  heights,  to  accommodate  the  height  ol 
the  workman,  but  the  medium  is  about  two  feet  eight  inches, 
They  are  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  about  two  feet  six 
inches  in  width.  Sometimes  the  top  boards  upon  the  farther  side 
are  made  only  about  ten  feet  long,  and  that  next  the  workman 
twelve  feet,  projecting  two  feet  at  the  hinder  part.  In  order  to 
keep  the  bench  and  work  from  tottering,  the  legs,  not  less  than 
three  inches  and  a  half  square,  should  be  well  braced,  particularly 
the  two  legs  on  the  working  side.  The  top  board  next  to  the 
workman  may  be  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  thick :  the 
thicker,  the  better  for  the  work ;  the  boards  to  the  farther  side 


JOINERY. 


89 


may  be  about  an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  quarter  thick.  If  the  work- 
man  stands  on  the  working  side  of  the  bench,  and  looks  across  the 
bench,  then  the  end  on  his  right  hand  is  called  the  hind  end,  and  that 
on  his  left  hand  the  fore  end.  The  bench  hook  is  sometimes  covered 
with  an  iron  plate,  the  front  edge  of  which  is  formed  into  sharp  teeth 
for  sticking  fast  into  the  end  of  the  wood  to  be  planed,  in  order  to 
prevent  it  from  slipping ;  or,  instead  of  a  plate,  nails  are  driven 
obliquely  through  the  edge,  and  filed  into  wedge-formed  points.  Each 
pair  of  end  legs  are  generally  coupled  together  by  two  rails  dove- 
tailed  into  the  legs.  Between  each  pair  of  coupled  legs,  the  length 
of  the  bench  is  generally  divided  into  three  or  four  equal  parts,  and 
transverse  bearers  fixed  at  the  divisions  to  the  side  boards,  the 
upper  sides  being  flush  with  those  of  the  side  boards,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supporting  the  top  firmly,  and  keeping  it  from  bending. 
The  screw  is  placed  behind  the  two  fore  legs,  the  bench  hook 
immediately  before  the  bearers  of  the  fore  legs,  and  the  guide  at 
some  distance  before  the  bench  hook.  For  the  convenience  of 
putting  things  out  of  the  way,  the  rails  at  the  ends  are  covered 
with  boards ;  and  for  farther  accommodation,  there  is  in  some 
benches  a  cavity,  formed  by  boarding  the  under  edges  of  the  side 
boards  before  the  hind  legs,  and  closing  the  ends  vertically,  so  that 
this  cavity  is  contained  between  the  top  and  the  boarding  under 
the  side  boards;  the  way  to  it  is  by  an  aperture  made  by  sliding 
a  part  of  the  top  bo  .rd  towards  the  hind  end :  this  deposit  is  called 
a  locker. 


§  3.  Joiners^  Tools, 

The  bench  planes  are,  the  jack  plane,  the  fore  plane,  the  trying 
plane,  the  long  plane,  the  jointer,  and  the  smoothing  plane  ;  the 
cylindric  plane,  the  compass  and  forkstaff  planes ;  the  straight 
block,  for  straightening  short  edges.  Rebating  planes  are  the  mo- 
ving fillister,  the  sash  fillister,  the  common  rebating  plane,  the  side 

rebating  plane.  Grooving  planes  are  the  plough  and  dado  grooving 
L 


90  JOINERY. 

planes.  Moulding  planes  are  sinking  snipebills,  side  snipebills, 
beads,  hollows  and  rounds,  ovolos  and  ogees.  Boring  tools  are, 
gimlets,  brad-awls,  stock,  and  bits.  Instruments  for  dividing  the 
wood,  are  principally  the  ripping  saw,  the  half  ripper,  the  hand 
saw,  the  panel  saw,  the  tenon  saw,  the  carcase  saw,  the  sash  saw, 
the  compass  saw,  the  keyhole  saw,  and  turning  saw.  Tools  used 
for  forming  the  angles  of  two  adjoining  surfaces,  are  squares  and 
bevels.  Tools  used  for  drawing  parallel  lines  are  guages.  Edge 
tools,  are  the  firmer  chisel,  the  mortise  chisel,  the  socket  chisel, 
the  gouge,  the  hatchet,  the  adze,  the  drawing  knife.  Tools 
for  knocking  upon  wood  and  iron  are,  the  mallet  and  hammer. 
Implements  for  sharpening  tools  are  the  grinding  stone,  the  rub 
stone,  and  the  oil  or  whet  stone. 


§  4.  Definitions, 

If  a  plane  be  set  with  the  under  surface  upon  the  wood  it  is  in- 
tended to  operate  upon,  and  placed  before  the  workman,  and  if 
four  surfaces  are  perpendicular  to  the  under  surface,  each  of  these 
surfaces  is  said  to  be  vertical ;  the  one  next  the  workman  is  called 
the  hind  end,  and  the  opposite  one,  the  fore  end,  and  the  two  in 
the  direction  which  the  plane  works,  the  sides :  the  under  surface 
is  called  the  sole,  the  side  of  the  plane  next  to  the  workman  is 
called  the  right  hand  side,  and  the  opposite  side  to  that,  the  left 
hand  side  of  the  plane. 

The  depth  of  a  plane  is  the  vertical  dimension  from  the  top  to 
the  under  surface ;  the  length  of  a  plane  is  the  horizontal  dimen- 
sion  in  the  direction  in  which  the  plane  is  wrought ;  the  breadth 
or  thickness  of  a  plane  is  the  horizontal  dimension  at  right  angles, 
to  the  length  and  depth. 

In  order  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  tool,  the  under  sur- 
face  is  called  the  sole  of  the  plane. 

The  reason  for  being  so  particular  in  defining  these  common 


JOINERY. 


91 


place  terms  which  might  be  supposed  to  be  known  to  every  one, 
is  from  a  desire  of  the  author  to  prevent  ambiguity ;  as  in  the 
term  depth,  which  implies  a  distance  from  you  in  whatever  direc- 
tion  it  runs,  as  the  depth  of  a  well  is  the  vertical  or  ^>luinb  distance  ; 
but  the  depth  of  a  house  is  the  distance  from  tho  front  to  the  rear 
wall,  and  consequently  is  a  horizontal  distance 


^5.  The  Jack  Plane,  Pl.  12.  Fig.  1. 

Is  used  in  taking  off  the  rough  and  prominent  parts  from  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  and  reducing  it  nearly  to  the  intended  form, 
in  coarse  slices,  called  shavings;  this  plane  consists  of  a  block  of 
wood  called  the  stock,  of  about  seventeen  inches  in  length,  three 
inches  high,  and  three  inches  and  a  half  broad.  All  the  sides  of 
the  stock  are  straight  surfaces  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Through  the  solid  of  the  stock,  and  through  two  of  its  opposite 
surfaces  is  cut  an  aperture,  in  which  is  inserted  a  thin  metal  plate 
called  the  iron,  one  side  of  the  plate  consisting  of  iron,  and  the 
other  of  steel.  The  side  of  the  opening  which  joins  the  iron  part, 
is  called  the  bed,  which  is  a  plane  surface,  making  an  angle  of 
forty.five  degrees  with  the  hind  part  of  the  underside  of  the  plane. 

The  end  of  the  iron  next  to  the  bottom  is  ground  to  an  acute 
angle  off  the  iron  side,  so  as  to  bring  the  steel  side  to  a  sharp 
edge,  having  a  small  convexity.  The  sloping  part  thus  formed, 
is  called  the  basil  of  the  iron.  The  iron  is  fixed  by  means  of  a 
wedge,  which  is  let  into  two  grooves  of  the  same  form,  on  the  sides 
of  the  opening  ;  two  sides  of  the  wedge  are  parallel  to  each  othei, 
and  to  the  vertical  side  of  the  plane,  and  consequently  to  two  ot 
the  sides  of  the  groove  ;  the  two  sides  of  the  grooves,  parallel 
to  the,  vertical  sides  of  the  plane  are  called  cheeks,  and  the  two 
other  sides  inclined  to  the  bed  of  the  iron  are  called  the  abutments 
or  abutment  sides :  the  wedge  and  the  iron  being  fixed,  the  open- 
ing must  be  uninterrupted  from  the  sole  to  the  top,  and  must  be 
no  more  on  the  sole  side  of  the  plane,  than  what  is  sufficient  for 
the  thickest  shaving  to  pass  with  ease ;  and  as  the  shaving  is  dis 


92 


JOINERY. 


charged  at  the  upper  side  of  the  plane,  the  opening  through  must 
expand  or  increase  from  the  sole  to  the  top,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
shavings  from  sticking.  In  conforniity  to  analogy,  the  part  of 
the  opening  at  the  sole,  which  first  receives  the  shaving,  is  called 
the  mouth.  In  order  for  the  shaving  to  pass  with  still  greater 
ease,  the  wedge  (PI.  12.  Fig.  5.)  is  forked  to  cut  away  in  the  mid- 
dle, leaving  the  prongs  to  fill  the  lower  parts  of  the  aforesaid 
grooves.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  plane,  behind  the  iron,  rises  a 
protuberance,  called  the  tote,  so  formed  to  the  shape  of  the  hand, 
and  direction  of  the  motion,  as  to  produce  the  most  power  in  push, 
ing  the  plane  forward. 

The  bringing  of  the  iron  to  a  sharp  cutting  edge  is  called  sharp, 
ening.  The  cutting  edge  of  the  iron  must  be  formed  with  a  con- 
vexity,  and  regulated  by  the  stuff  to  be  wrought,  whether  it  is  hard 
or  soft,  cross  grained  or  curling,  so  that  a  man  may  be  able  to 
perform  the  most  work,  or  to  reduce  the  substance  most,  in  a  given 
time.  To  prevent  the  iron  from  tearing  the  wood  to  cross  grained 
stuflT,  a  cover  is  used  with  a  reversed  basil,  (PI.  12.  Fig.  4.)  and 
fastened  by  means  of  a  screw,  the  thin  part  of  which  slides  in  a 
longitudinal  slit  in  the  iron,  and  the  head  is  taken  out  by  a  large 
hole  near  the  upper  end  of  it.  The  lower  edge  of  the  cover  is  so 
formed,  as  to  be  concentric  or  parallel  to  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
iron,  and  fixed  at  a  small  distance  above  it,  and  to  coincide  en- 
tirely  with  the  steel  face.  The  basil  of  the  cover  must  be  rounded, 
and  not  flat,  as  that  of  the  iron  is.  The  distance  between 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  iron,  and  the  edge  of  the  cover,  depends 
altogether  on  the  nature  of  the  stuff.  If  the  stuff  is  free,  the  edge 
of  the  cover  may  be  set  at  a  considerable  distance,  because  the 
difficulty  of  pushing  the  plane  forward  becomes  greater,  as  the 
edge  of  the  cover  is  nearer  the  edge  of  the  iron,  and  the  contrary 
when  more  remote. 

The  convexity  of  the  edge  of  the  iron  depends  on  the  texture  of 
the  stuff,  whether  it  is  free,  cross  grained,  hard  or  knotty.  If  the 
stuff  is  free,  it  is  evident  that  a  considerable  projection  may  be 
allowed,  as  a  thicker  shaving  may  be  taken  :  the  extreme  edges 


JOINERY. 


93 


of  the  iron  must  never  enter  the  wood,  as  this  not  only  retards  the 
progress  of  working,  but  chokes  and  prevents  the  regular  dis- 
charge of  the  shavings  at  the  orifice  of  the  plane. 

§  6.  To  Grind  and  Sharpen  the  Iron, 

When  you  grind  the  iron,  place  your  two  thumbs  under  it,  and 
the  fingers  of  both  hands  above,  laying  the  basil  to  the  stone, 
and  holding  it  to  the  angle  you  intend  it  shall  make  with  the  steel 
side  of  it,  keeping  it  steady  while  the  stone  is  turning,  and  pressing 
the  iron  to  the  stone  with  your  fingers  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent 
the  stone  from  wearing  the  edge  of  the  iron  into  irregularities, 
move  it  alternately  from  edge  to  edge  of  the  stone  with  so  much 
pressure  on  the  different  parts,  as  will  reduce  it  to  the  required 
convexity ;  then  lift  the  iron  to  see  that  it  is  ground  to  your  mind' 
if  it  is  not,  the  operation  must  be  repeated,  and  the  steel  or  basiJ 
side  placed  in  its  former  position  on  the  stone,  otherwise  the  basi! 
will  be  doubled ;  but  if  in  the  proper  direction  it  will  be  hollow, 
which  will  be  more  as  the  diameter  of  the  stone  is  less.  The 
basil  being  brought  to  a  proper  angle,  and  the  edge  to  a  regular 
curvature,  the  roughness  occasioned  by  the  gritty  particles  of  the 
grindstone  may  be  taken  away,  by  rubbing  on  a  smooth  flat  wet 
stone  or  Turkey  stone,  sprinkling  sweet  oil  on  the  surface  ;  as  he 
basil  is  generally  ground  something  longer  that  what  the  iron 
would  stand,  for  the  quicker  despatch  of  wetting  it,  you  may  incline 
the  face  of  the  iron  nearer  to  the  perpendicular,  rubbing  to  and 
fro  with  the  same  inclination  th-roughout :  having  done  it  to  your 
mind,  it  may  be  fixed.  When  there  is  occasion  to  sharpen  it 
again,  it  is  commonly  done  upon  aflat  rub  stone  keeping  the  proper 
angle  of  position  as  before,  then  the  edge  may  be  finished  on  the 
Turkey  stone  as  before :  and  at  every  time  the  iron  gets  dull  or 
blunt,  the  sharpening  is  produced  by  the  rub  stone  and  Turkey 
stone,  but  in  repeating  this  often  the  edge  gets  so  thick  that  it 
requires  so  much  time  to  bring  it  up,  that  recourse  must  be  had 
again  to  the  grindstone. 


94 


JOINERY. 


§  7.  To  Fix  and  Unfix  the  Iron, 

In  fixing  the  iron  in  the  plane,  the  projection  of  the  cutting  edge 
must  be  just  so  much  beyond  the  sole  of  the  plane,  as  the  work- 
man may  be  able  to  work  it  freely  in  the  act  of  planing.  This 
projection  is  called  iron,  and  the  plane  is  said  to  have  more  or  less 
iron  as  the  projection  varies :  when  there  is  too  much  iron,  knock 
with  the  hammer  on  the  fore  end  of  the  stock  ;  and  the  blows  will 
loosen  the  wedge,  and  raise  the  iron  in  a  certain  degree,  and  the 
head  of  the  wedge  must  be  knocked  down  to  make  all  tight  again: 
if  the  iron  is  not  sufficiently  raised,  proceed  agam  in  the  same 
manner,  but  if  too  much,  the  iron  must  be  knocked  down  gently 
by  hitting  the  head  with  a  hammer  :  and  thus,  by  trials,  you  will 
give  the  plane  the  degree  of  iron  required.  When  you  have 
occasion  to  take  out  the  iron  to  sharpen  it,  strike  the  fore  end 
smartly,  which  will  loosen  the  wedge,  and  consequently  the  iron. 


§  8.  To  Use  the  Jack  Plane, 

In  using  the  jack  plane,  lay  the  stuff  before  you  parallel  to  the 
sides  of  the  bench,  the  farther  end  against  the  bench  hook :  then 
beginning  at  the  hind  end  of  the  stuff,  by  laying  the  forepart  of 
the  plane  upon  it,  lay  hold  of  the  tote  with  the  right  hand,  and 
pressing  with  the  left  upon  the  fore  end,  thrust  the  plane  forward 
in  the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood  and  length  of  the  plane, 
until  you  have  extended  the  stroke  the  whole  stretch  of  your  arms; 
the  shaving  will  be  discharged  at  the  orifice :  draw  back  the  plane, 
and  repeat  the  operation  in  the  next  adjacent  rough  part;  proceed 
in  this  manner  until  you  have  taken  off  the  rough  parts  throughout 
the  whole  breadth,  then  step  forward  so  much  as  you  have  planed, 
and  plane  off  the  rough  of  another  length  in  the  same  manner : 
proceed  in  this  way  by  steps,  until  the  whole  length  is  gone  over 
and  rough  planed  ;  you  may  then  return  and  take  all  the  protu- 
berant  parts  or  sudden  risings,  by  similar  operations 


JOINERY.  96 
§  9.  The  Trying  Plane,  Pl.  12.  Fig.  2. 

Is  constructed  similar  to  the  jack  plane,  except  the  tote  of  the 
jack  plane  is  single,  and  that  of  the  trying  plane  double,  to  give 
greater  strength  ;  the  length  of  this  plane  is  about  tvventy-two 
inches,  the  breadth  three  and  a  quarter,  and  the  height  three  and 
an  eighth.  Its  use  is  to  reduce  the  ridges  made  by  the  jack  plane, 
and  to  straighten  the  stuff :  for  this  purpose  it  is  both  longer  and 
broader,  the  edge  of  the  iron  is  less  convex,  and  set  with  less 
projection  :  but  as  it  takes  a  broader  though  finer  shaving,  it  still 
requires  as  much  force  to  push  it  forward. 


§  10.  The  Use  of  the  Trying  Plane. 

The  sharpening  of  the  iron,  and  the  operation  of  planing  is 
much  the  same  as  that  of  the  jack  plane;  when  the  side  of  a  piece 
of  stuff  has  been  planed  first  by  the  jack  plane,  and  afterwards  by 
the  trying  plane,  that  side  of  the  stuff  is  said  to  be  tried  up, 
and  the  operation  is  called  trying. 

When  the  stuff  is  required  to  be  very  straight,  particularly  if 
the  broad  and  narrow  side  of  another  piece  is  to  join  it,  instead  of 
stopping  the  plane  at  every  arm's  length,  as  with  the  jack  plane, 
the  shaving  is  taken  the  whole  length,  by  stepping  forwards,  then 
returning,  and  repeating  the  operation  throughout  the  breadth,  as 
often  as  may  be  found  necessary. 


Ml.  The  Long  Plane 

Is  used  when  a  piece  of  stuff  is  required  to  be  tried  up  very 
straight;  for  this  purpose  it  is  both  longer  and  broader  than  the 
trying  plane,  and  set  with  still  less  iron  ;  the  manner  of  using  it 
is  the  same.  Its  length  is  twenty  six  inches,  its  breadth  three 
inches  and  five  eighths,  and  depth  three  inches  and  one  eighth. 


96 


JOINERY. 


§  12.  The  Jointer 

Is  still  longer  than  the  long  plane,  and  is  used  principally  for 
planing  straight  edges,  and  the  edges  of  boards,  so  as  to  make 
them  join  together;  this  operation  is  called  shooting,  and  the  edge 
itself  is  said  to  be  shot.  The  length  of  this  plane  is  about  two  feet 
six  inches,  the  depth  three  inches  and  a  half,  and  the  breadth  three 
inches  and  three  fourths.  The  shaving  is  taken  the  whole  length 
in  finishing  the  joint,  or  narrow  surface. 


§  13.  Tlie  Smoothing  Plane,  Pl.  12.  Yw.  3. 

Is  the  last  plane  used  in  giving  the  utmost  degree  of  smoothness 
to  the  surface  of  the  wood  :  it  is  chiefly  used  in  cleaning  ofT 
finished  work.  The  construction  of  this  plane  is  the  same  with 
regard  to  the  iron  wedge  and  opening  for  discharging  the  shaving, 
but  is  much  smaller  in  size,  being  in  length  seven  inches  and  a 
half,  in  breadth  three,  and  in  depth  two  and  three  quarters,  and 
difl^ers  in  form,  on  account  of  its  having  convex  sides,  and  no  tote. 

There  is  also  this  difference  in  giving  the  iron  a  finer  set,  that 
you  may  strike  the  hind  end  instead  of  the  fore  part. 


§  14.  Bench  Planes. 

The  jack  plane,  the  trying  plane,  the  long  plane,  the  jointer  and 
the  smoothing  plane,  are  denominated  bench  planes. 


§  15.  The  Compass  Plane 

is  similar  to  the  smoothing  plane  in  size  and  shape,  but  the  sole 
J-  convex,  and  the  convexity  is  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of 
the  plane.    The  use  of  the  compass  plane  is  to  form  a  concave 


JOINERY. 


97 


Cylindrical  surface,  when  tlie  wood  to  be  wrought  upon  is  bent 
with  the  fibres  in  the  direction  of  the  curve,  which  is  in  a  plane 
surface  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  Consequently 
compass  planes  must  be  of  various  sizes,  in  order  to  accommodate 
different  diameters. 


§  16.  The  Forkstaff  Plane 

Is  similar  to  the  smoothing  plane  in  every  respect  of  size  and 
shape,  except  that  the  sole  is  part  of  a  concave  cylindric  surface, 
having  the  axis  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  plane.  The  use  of 
the  forkstaff  plane  is  to  form  cylindric  surfaces,  by  planing  paral- 
lei  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  Planes  of  this  description  must 
likewise  be  of  various  sizes,  to  form  the  surface  to  various  radii : 
these  two  last  planes  are  more  used  by  coach-makers  than  by 
joiners. 

§  17.  The  Straight  Block 

Is  used  for  snooting  short  joints  and  mitres,  instead  of  the  jointer, 
whxh  in  such  cases  would  be  rather  unhandy ;  this  plane  is  al«o 
made  without  the  tote,  and  as  it  is  frequently  used  in  straight- 
ening the  ends  of  pieces  of  wood  perpendicularly  to  the  direction 
of  the  fibres,  the  iron  is  inclined  more  to  the  sole  of  the  plane, 
that  is,  it  forms  a  more  acute  angle  with  it :  in  order  that  it  may 
cut  clean,  the  inclination  of  the  basil,  and  the  face  of  the  iron,  is 
therefore  less  on  this  account :  the  length  of  the  straight  block 
is  twelve  inches,  its  breadth  three  and  one  eighth,  and  depth  two 
and  three  quarters. 


REBATE  PLANES  IN  GENERAL. 

§  18.  The  Rebate  Plane 

Is  used  after  a  piece  of  stuff  has  been  previously  tried  on  one 
iSTos.  7  &  8.  M 


98 


JOINERY. 


siile  and  shot  on  the  other,'  or  tried  on  both  sides,  in  taking  away 
a  part  next  to  one  of  the  arises  of  a  rectangular  or  oblong  section, 
the  whole  part  therefore  taken  away  is  a  square  prism,  and  the 
superfiees  formed  after  taken  away  the  prism  is  two  straight 
surfaces,  forming  an  internal  right  angle  with  each  other ;  so  that 
the  stuff  will  now  have  one  internal  angle  and  two  external  angles. 
The  operation  of  this  reducing  the  stuff  is  called  rebating.  Re- 
bating is  either  used  by  way  of  ornament,  as  in  the  sinking  of 
cornices,  the  sunk  facias  of  architraves,  or  in  forming  a  recess  for 
the  reception  of  another  board,  so  that  the  edge  of  this  board  may 
coincide  with  that  side  of  the  rebate,  next  to  the  edge  of  the  re- 
bated  piece.  The  length  of  rebating  planes  is  about  nine  inches 
and  a  half,  the  vertical  dimension  or  depth  is  about  three  and  a 
half,  they  are  of  various  thickness,  from  one  and  thi^oe  quarters  to 
half  an  inch.  Rebate  planes  are  of  several  kinds,  some  have  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  iron  upon  the  bottom,  and  some  upon  the  side 
of  the  plane.  Of  these  which  have  the  cutting  edge  on  the 
bottom,  some  are  used  for  sinking,  and  some  for  smoothing  or 
cleaning  the  bottom  of  the  rebate ;  and  these  which  have  the  cut- 
ting  edge  upon  one  side  are  called  side  rebating  planes,  and  are 
used  after  the  former  in  cleaning  the  vertical  side  of  the  rebate. 
Rebate  planes  differ  from  the  bench  planes,  before  mentioned,  in 
their  having  no  tote ;  the  cavity  is  not  open  to  the  top,  but  the 
wedge  is  made  to  fit  completely,  and  the  shaving  is  discharged  on 
one  side  or  other,  according  to  the  use  of  the  plane. 


§  19.  Sinking  Rebating  Planes 

Are  of  two  denominations,  the  moving  fillister  and  sash  fillister* 
the  moving  fillister  is  for  sinking  the  edge  of  the  stuff  next  to  you, 
and  the  sash  fillister  the  farther  edge  ;  consequently  these  planes 
have  their  cutting  edges  on  the  under  side. 


JOINERY. 


99 


§20.  Of  the  moving  Fillister,  Pl.  13.  Fig. 

Upon  the  bottom  of  the  moving  fillister  is  a  slip  of  wood,  so  re- 
gulated by  two  screws  as  one  of  the  vertical  sides  of  the  slip  may 
be  fixed  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  sole  ;  then  the  breadth  between 
this  side  of  the  slip  and  the  edge  of  the  sole  of  the  plane  is  equal 
to  the  breadth  of  the  rebate.  This  slip  is  called  a  fence,  and  the 
vertical  side  of  it  next  to  the  stock,  the  guide  ;  as  the  rebate  is 
made  upon  the  right  edge  of  the  stuff,  the  fence  is  always  upon 
the  left  side  of  the  sole.  The  iron  between  the  guide  and  the 
right  hand  edge  of  the  sole  of  the  plane  must  project  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  uncovered  part  of  the  sole,  otherwise  the  plane 
will  not  sink,  so  long  as  it  is  kept  in  one  position  ;  the  right  hand 
point  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the  iron  must  stand  a  small  degree 
without  the  vertical  right  hand  side  of  the  plane  ;  for  if  this  point 
of  the  iron  stood  within,  the  situation  of  the  point  would  also  pre- 
vent the  sinking  of  the  rebate ;  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  iron  should  stand  equally  prominent  m  all  parts  out  of 
the  sole,  otherwise  the  plane  cannot  make  shavings  of  an  equal 
thickness,  and  consequently  instead  of  keeping  the  vertical  posi- 
tion, .will  turn  round  and  incline  to  the  side  on  which  the  shavings 
are  thickest,  and  thus  the  part  cut  away  will  not  have  a  rectangular 
section,  for  the  bottom  of  the  rebate  will  not  then  be  parallel  to 
th«  upper  face  of  the  stuff;  and  the  side  which  ought  to  have  been 
vertical,  will  be  a  kind  of  ragged  curved  surface,  formed  by  as 
many  gradations  or  steps  as  the  depth  consists  of  the  number  of 
shavings.  Observe,  that  whatever  regulates  any  plane  which 
takes  away  a  portion  of  the  stuff  next  to  the  edge,  to  cause  the 
part  taken  away  on  the  upper  face  of  the  stuff  from  the  edge  to  be 
of  one  breadth,  is  called  a  fence ;  in  like  manner,  whatever  pre- 
vents a  plane  working  downwards  beyond  a  certain  distance,  is 
called  a  stop.  Therefore  the  fence  regulates  the  horizontal  breadth 
of  what  is  taken  away,  and  the  stop  the  vertical  dimension  or  depth, 
and  this  is  to  be  understood,  not  only  of  rebate  planes,  but  of 
moulding  planes,  where  the  moulding  is  regulated  in  its  horizontal 


100  JOINERY. 

dimension,  in  the  breadth  or  thickness  ol  the  stuff,  and  the  vertical 
on  the  adjacent  vertical  side. 

Returning  to  the  moving  fillister,  the  guide  is  the  bottom  surface 
of  a  piece  of  metal  which  is  regulated  by  a  screw,  so  as  to  move  it 
to  the  required  distance  from  the  sole.    Though  the  bottom  of  this 
piece  of  metal  is  properly  the  stop,  yet  it  is  altogether  called  a 
stop  by  plane  makers  and  carpenters ;  but  to  avoid  a  confusion  of 
words,  we  shall  call  the  bottom  of  the  stop  the  vertical  guide.  The 
stop  moves  in  a  vertical  groove  in  the  side  of  the  fillister,  and  has 
a  projection  with  a  vertical  perforation,  which  goes  farther  into 
the  groove,  or  into  the  solid  of  the  stock.    The  stop  is  placed 
on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  fillister,  between  the  iron  and  the  fore 
end  of  the  plane,  and  is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  screw,  which  is 
inserted  in  a  vertical  perforation  from  the  top  of  the  plane  to  thp. 
groove,  and  passes  through  the  perforation  in  the  projecting  part 
of  the  stop,  which  has  a  female,  or  concave  screw  adapted  to  that 
cut  on  the  convex  screw.    The  convex  screw  is  always  kept  sta- 
tionary by  a  plate  of  metal,  let  in  flush  with  the  upper  side  of  the 
plane  ;  below  this  plate,  and  on  the  same  solid  with  the  screw,  is 
a  collar,  and  above,  another  which  projects  still  farther  upwards 
by  way  of  a  lever,  for  the  ease  of  turning  the  screw.    This  part 
which  turns  round,  is  called  the  thumb  screw.    It  is  evident,  as 
the  axis  of  the  thumb  screw  can  neither  move  up  or  down  as  it 
turns  round  its  axis,  the  inclination  of  the  threads  will  rise  or  fail 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  thumb  screw,  and  cause  the  stop 
to  move  up  and  down  in  the  groove  on  the  side  of  the  plane,  and 
thus  the  stop  may  be  fixed  at  pleasure.    In  this  plane,  the  opening 
for  discharging  the  shaving  is  upon  the  right  side  of  the  fillister, 
and  in  this  case  the  shaving  is  said  by  workmen  to  be  thrown  on 
the  bench,  that  is,  upon  the  right  side  of  the  plane ;  but  when  the 
orifice  of  discharge  is  upon  the  left,  and  consequently  the  shaving 
thrown  upon  the  left,  the  plane  is  said  to  throw  the  shaving  off  the 
bench ;  and  these  expressions  are  applied  to  all  planes  whic': 
throw  the  shavings  to  one  side. 

In  the  moving  fillister,  as  well  as  in  several  other  planes,  ihe 


JOINERY. 


103 


upper  part  on  the  sides  of  the  stock  is  thinner  than  the  lower  part; 
this  part  is  called  the  hand-hold,  and  the  thick  part  the  body.  In 
the  nnoving  fillister,  the  reduction  made  for  the  hand-hold  is  equally 
upon  both  sides  of  the  plane,  that  is,  the  rebates  are  of  equal 
depth.  The  edges  of  these  rebates,  which  is  the  upper  surface  ol' 
the  body,  are  called  shoulders ;  this  plane  is  therefore  double 
shouldered.  The  same  appellation  is  given  to  the  iron,  when  a 
part  is  taken  from  one  or  both  sides,  so  as  to  make  the  upper  part 
equally  broad,  but  the  sides  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  bottom 
part.  The  part  of  the  iron  so  diminished,  is  called  the  tang  of  the 
iron,  and  the  broad  part  at  the  bottom,  which  has  the  cutting  edge, 
is  called  the  web,  and  the  upper  narrow  surtaces  of  the  web  are 
called  the  shoulders  of  the  iron,  in  analogy  to  those  of  the  plane. 
The  iron  of  the  moving  fillister  is  only  single  shouldered.  Besides 
the  above-mentioned  parts,  the  moving  fillister  has  another,  wliich 
is  a  small  one-shouldered  iron,  inserted  in  a  vertical  mortise, 
through  the  body,  between  the  fore  end  of  the  stock  and  the  iron. 
The  web  of  this  little  iron  is  ground  with  a  round  basil,  from  the 
left  side,  so  as  to  bring  the  bottom  of  the  narrow  side  of  the  iron 
to  a  very  convex  edge.  This  little  iron  is  fastened  by  a  wedge, 
upon  the  right  side  of  the  hand-hold,  passing  down  the  mortise 
in  the  body.  The  use  of  this  little  iron  is  principally  for  cutting 
the  wood  transversely  when  wrought  across  the  fibres,  and  by  tliis 
means  it  not  only  cuts  the  vertical  side  of  the  rebate  quite  smooth, 
but  prevents  the  iron  from  ragging  or  tearing  the  stuff.  The  whole 
of  this  little  iron  is  called  a  tooth,  and  the  bottom  part  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  cutter.  The  cutter  must,  there- 
fore, stand  out  a  little  farther  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  plane 
than  the  iron,  but  must  never  be  placed  nearer  to  the  fence  than 
the  narrow  right  hand  side  of  the  iron.  In  this  plane,  the  steel 
side  of  the  iron,  and  consequently  the  bedding  side  of  it,  is  not 
perpendicular  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plane,  but  makes  oblique 
angles  therewith,  the  right  hand  point  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
iron  being  nearer  to  the  fore  end  of  the  plane  than  the  left  hand 
point  of  the  cutting  edge.  Bv  this  obliquity,  the  bottom  of  tho 
i2 


102 


JOINERY. 


rebate  is  cut  smoother,  particularly  in  a  transverse  direction  to 
the  fibres,  or  where  the  stuff  is  cross  grained,  than  could  other- 
wise  be  done  when  the  steel  face  of  the  iron  is  perpendicular  to 
the  vertical  sides  of  the  plane.  The  principal  use  is,  however, 
to  contribute,  with  the  form  of  the  cavity,  to  throw  the  shaving 
into  a  cylindrical  form,  and  thereby  making  it  issue  from  one  side 
of  the  plane. 


§  21.  Of  the  Sash  Fillister  in  general.   Pl.  12.  Fig.  6. 

The  sash  fillister  is  a  rebating  plane  for  reducing  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  stuff  to  a  rebate,  and  is  mostly  used  in  rebating  the  bars 
of  sashes  for  the  glass,  and  is  therefore  called  a  sash  filHster.  The 
construction  of  tliis  plane  differs  in  several  particulars  from  the 
moving  fillister.  The  breadth  of  iron  is  something  more  than  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  sole,  so  that  the  extremities  of  the  cutting 
edge  are,  in  a  small  degree,  without  the  vertical  sides  of  the  stock. 
In  the  moving  fillister,  the  fence  is  upon  the  bottom  of  the  plane, 
and  always  between  the  two  vertical  sides  of  the  stock  ;  but  in  this 
it  may  be  moved  to  a  considerable  distance,  the  limit  of  which  will 
be  afterwards  mentioned.  The  fence  is  not  moved,  as  in  the  mov. 
ing  fillister,  by  screws  fixed  in  the  bottom,  but  by  two  bars,  which 
pass  through  the  two  vertical  sides  of  the  stock  at  right  angles  to 
their  sides,  fitting  the  two  holes  exactly  through  which  they  pass 
in  the  stock.  Each  of  the  bars  which  thus  passes  through  the 
stock,  is  called  a  stem,  and  is  rounded  on  the  upper  side,  for  the 
convenience  of  handling.  That  part  of  each  stem,  projecting  from 
the  lei\  hand  side  of  the  plane,  has  a  projection  downwards,  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  parts  which  j^ass  through  the  stock  ;  the  bot- 
tom sides  of  these  projections  are  flat  surfaces,  parallel  to  the  sole 
of  the  plane  ;  the  other  tvvo  sides  of  the  said  projections  are  also 
straight  surfaces,  parallel  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plane,  and  are 
called  the  shoulders,  so  that  each  stem  has  three  vertical  straight 
surfaces.    The  left  end  of  each  stem,  viz.  the  end  on  the  left  side 


JOINERY. 


103 


of  the  stock,  opposite  to  the  shoulder,  may  be  of  any  fanciful 
form.  The  end  of  each  stem  which  contains  the  projection,  is 
called  the  head  of  the  stem.  To  each  of  the  heads  of  the  stem,  and 
under  each  of  the  lower  flat  surfaces  of  the  projecting  parts,  is 
fixed  a  piece  of  wood  by  iron  pins,  passing  vertically  through  each 
head,  and  through  this  piece ;  one  of  the  sides  of  this  piece,  next 
to  the  stock  of  the  plane,  is  vertical,  and  goes  about  half  an  inch 
lower  than  the  sole.  The  small  part  of  each  stem,  from  the  head 
to  the  other  extremity  on  the  right  hand  of  the  stock,  is  called  the 
tail.  The  prismatic  part  is  by  workmen  called  the  fence.  The 
surface  of  the  fence  next  to  the  stock  of  the  vertical  plane,  and  pa- 
rallel to  the  vertical  faces,  is  called  the  guide  of  the  fence.  The 
pins  which  connect  the  stem  and  fence,  have  their  heads  on  the 
under  side  of  the  fence  ;  the  heads  are  of  a  conical  form ;  the  up- 
per ends  of  the  pins  are  rivetted  upon  a  brass  plate  on  the  round 
surface  of  the  stem.  These  pins  fix  the  two  stems  and  the  fence 
stifHy  together,  but  not  so  much  as  to  prevent  either  stem  from 
turning  round  upon  the  fence,  or  to  make  oblique  angles  with  the 
guide.  The  upper  surface  of  each  stem  is  rounded,  and  the  two 
ends  ferruled,  to  prevent  splitting  when  the  ends  are  hit  or  struck 
with  a  mallet,  in  order  to  move  the  guide  of  the  fence  either  nearer 
or  more  remote  from  the  stock,  as  may  be  wanted.  On  the  most 
remote  opposite,  or  vertical  sides  of  the  stem,  and  close  to  these 
sides,  are  cut  two  small  wedge-formed  mortises,  in  which  are  in- 
serted  two  small  tapering  pieces  of  wood  called  keys ;  so  that 
when  driven  in,  or  towards  the  mortise,  they  will  stick  fast,  and 
press  against  the  stem,  and  keep  it  fast  at  all  points  of  the  tail,  and 
thereby  regulate  the  distance  of  the  fence  from  the  left  vertical 
side  of  the  stock.  In  order  to  prevent  the  keys  from  being  drawr 
out,  or  loosing,  each  has  a  small  elliptic  nob  at  the  narrow  end, 
which  is  also  of  greater  breadth  than  the  mortise  upon  the  left  ver 
tical  side  of  the  stock.  Theic  are  two  kinds  of  sash  fillisters,  one 
for  throwing  the  shaving  on  the  bench,  and  the  other  for  throwing 
it  off:  their  construction  is  the  same  so  far  as  has  been  described. 


i04 


JOINERY. 


§22.   The  Fillister  which  throws  the  Shavings  on  the  Bench, 
Pl.  12.  Fig.  6. 

Has  its  discharging  orifice  in  course  upon  the  right  hana  verti- 
cal  side  of  the  stock,  and  the  left  extremity  of  the  cutting  edge  of 
the  iron  is  nearer  to  the  fore  end  of  the  plane,  than  the  right  hand 
extremity  of  the  said  edge.  On  the  left  side  of  the  stock,  and 
from  the  sole,  is  a  rebate,  the  depth  of  which  is  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  rebate  made  on  the  stuff.  The  upper  side  of  the  fence 
ranges  exactly  with  the  side  of  the  rebate  which  is  parallel  to  the 
sole  of  the  plane  ;  and  by  this  means,  the  guide  of  the  fence  may 
be  brought  quite  close  to  the  vertical  side  of  the  rebate,  or  as  far 
upon  the  side  of  the  rebate,  parallel  to  the  sole  of  the  plane,  as  may 
be  found  necessary.  The  depth  of  the  rebate  to  be  made  in  the 
stuff,  is  regulated  by  a  stop,  which  coincides  vertically  with  the 
vertical  side  of  the  rebate  ;  the  guide  of  the  stop  is  parallel  to  the 
sole  of  the  plane,  and  the  stop  is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  thumb 
screw,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  moving  fillister,  but  not 
in  a  groove  on  the  side  of  the  plane,  but  in  a  mortise  :  the  side  of 
the  rebate  parallel  to  the  sole  of  the  plane,  is  mortised  upwards, 
that  the  guide  may  be  screwed  up  so  as  to  be  flush  with  that  side 
of  the  rebate.  The  ^ron  of  this  plane  is  single  shouldered,  and 
the  projection  of  the  web  at  the  bottom,  beyond  the  tang,  is  on 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  plane,  and  consequently  the  narrow 
side  of  the  tang  and  web  parts  of  the  iron  are  in  the  same  straight 
line. 

§  23.  Of  the  Sash  Fillister  for  throwing  the  Shavings 
off  the  Bench, 

The  sash  fillister  wnich  throws  the  shavings  off  the  bench,  dif- 
fers  only  from  the  last,  in  having  no  rebate  on  the  left  hand  side 
of  the  plane  ;  the  stop  slides  in  a  vertical  groove  on  the  left  hand 
verticle  side  of  the  stock,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  stop  of  the 
moving  fillister,  and  not  in  a  vertical  mortise  cut  in  the  vertical 


JOINERY. 


105 


side  of  the  body  of  the  plane  :  it  has  also  a  cutter  on  the  left  side, 
in  order  to  cut  the  vertical  side  of  the  rebate  clean.  One  extre- 
mity of  the  cutting  edge  of  the  iron,  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
plane,  is  nearer  to  the  fore  end  than  the  other ;  consequently  the 
steel  face  of  the  iron  makes  angles  with  the  vertical  sides  of  the 
plane  the  contrary  way  to  the  sash  fillister,  which  throws  the 
shavings  on  the  bench. 

§  24.  Rebating  Planes  without  a  Fence, 

Rebating  planes  which  have  no  fence,  are  of  two  kinds ;  in 
both,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  iron  extends  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
sole  ;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  stock  is  solid  on  the  two  vertical 
sides,  but  the  lower  part  is  open  on  both  sides;  the  opening  in- 
creases from  the  sole  regularly  upwards,  until  it  comes  to  a  large 
cavity,  which  opens  abruptly  into  a  curved  form  on  the  side  next 
to  the  fore  end  of  the  plane.  The  web  of  the  iron  is  equally 
shouldered  on  both  sides  of  the  tang. 


§  25.  Skew-mouthed  Rebating  Plane, 

The  thickest  stocks,  or  broadest  sole  planes,  of  this  description, 
are  made  with  the  face  of  the  iron  standing  at  oblique  angles  with 
the  vertical  sides.  The  right  hand  extremity  of  the  cutting  edge 
of  the  iron,  stands  nearer  to  the  fore  end  of  the  plane  than  the  left 
hand  extremity  of  the  said  cutting  edge,  and  the  large  cavity  is 
greater  upon  the  left  side  of  the  plane  than  upon  the  right.  The 
shaving  is  therefore. thrown  off  the  bench.  The  use  of  this  piano 
is  not  for  sinking  the  rebate,  but  rather  for  smoothing  the  bottom, 
after  the  moving  fillister,  or  after  the  sash  fillister,  next  to  the 
vertical  edge  of  the  rebate.  In  this  manner  it  is  used  in  cleaning 
the  bottom  entirely  of  rebates  which  do  not  exceed  the  breadth 
of  its  sole  ;  but  where  the  rebate  exceeds  this  breadth,  it  is  only 
used  next  to  the  vertical  side  of  the  rebate  as  before,  and  the 

N 


106 


JOINERY. 


remaining  part  of  the  bottonfi  of  the  rebate  is  cleaned  off  with  the 
trying  and  smoothing  planes.  When  the  iron  is  set  at  oblique 
angles  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plane,  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
sole  is  said  to  stand  askew,  that  is,  at  oblique  angles  with  the  sides 
of  the  plane.  This  is  therefore  called  a  skew  rebating  plane.  The 
thickness  of  this  rebating  plane  is  about  one  inch  and  five  eighths. 


§  26.  Square-mouthed  Rebating  Planes, 

The  common  rebating  planes  have  the  steel  side  of  the  iron,  or 
the  bed,  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  stock,  and  throw 
the  shaving  off  the  bench ;  the  cavity  for  the  discharge  of  the 
shaving  is  much  the  same  as  the  skew  rebatmg  plane ;  and  since 
the  shaving  is  thrown  off  the  bench,  the  widest  side  of  the  cavity 
is  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  stock,  to  clean  the  internal  angles 
of  fillets,  and  the  bottoms  of  grooves,  dz;c. 


^  27.  Side  Rebating  Planes 

Are  those  which  have  their  cutting  edge  on  one  side  of  the 
plane,  and  discharge  the  shaving  at  the  other,  the  lower  part  oi 
the  stock  is  therefore  open  upon  both  sides.  The  use  of  this  plane 
is  to  clean  or  plane  the  vertical  sides  of  rebates,  grooves,  &;c :  for 
this  purpose,  they  are  made  both  right  and  left :  a  right  hand  side 
rebating  plane  has  its  cutting  edge  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
plane,  and  consequently  throws  the  shaving  off  the  bench,  and 
the  contrary  of  the  left  hand  rebating  plane.  The  side  of  the 
plane  containing  the  mouth,  is  altogether  vertical ;  but  the  opposite 
side  is  only  in  part  so,  from  the  top  downwards  to  something  more 
than  half  the  height,  then  recessed  and  beveled  with  a  taper  to 
the  sole ;  the  orifice  of  discharge  for  the  shaving  is  beveled.  The 
iron  stands  askew,  or  at  oblique  angles  with  the  m.outh  side,  but 
perpendicular  with  regard  to  the  sole  or  top  of  the  plane  ;  the  cut- 


JOINERY. 


10/ 


ling  edge  stands  nearer  to  the  fore  end  than  the  opposite  edge. 
The  mortise  for  the  wedge  of  the  iron  is  without  a  cavity,  as  in 
the  other  rebating  planes,  and  the  iron  shouldered  upon  one  side. 
The  web  is  cut  sloping  to  answer  the  beveling  of  the  stock. 


§  28.  The  Plough,  Pl.  12.  Fig.  8. 

Is  used  in  taking  away  a  solid  in  the  form  of  a  rectangular 
prism,  by  sinking  any  where  in  the  upper  surface,  but  not  close  to 
the  edge,  and  thereby  leaving  an  excavation  or  hollow,  consisting 
of  three  straight  surfaces,  forming  two  internal  right  angles 
with  each  other,  and  the  two  vertical  sides,  two  external  right 
angles  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  stuff.  The  channel  cut  is 
called  a  groove,  but  the  operation  is  called  grooving  or  plowing. 
The  plow  consists  of  a  stock,  a  fence,  and  a  stop.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  plows,  one  where  the  fence  and  stop  is  immoveable,  and 
the  other  which  is  universal,  of  which,  both  fence  and  stop  are 
moveable,  and  will  admit  of  eight  or  ten  irons  of  various  breadths, 
from  one  eighth  of  an  inch  to  three  fourths.  This  is  what  I  shall 
chiefly  describe.  The  fence  has  two  stems  with  keys  and  a  stop, 
moved  by  a  thumb  screw,  as  in  the  moving  fillister  for  throwing 
the  shaving  on  the  bench.  The  sole  of  this  plane  is  the  bottom 
narrow  side  of  two  vertical  iron  plates,  which  are  something  thinner 
than  the  narrowest  iron.  The  wedge  and  iron  are  inserted  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  rebating  planes,  the  fore  end  of  the  hind 
plate  forms  the  lower  part  of  the  bed  of  the  iron,  and  has  a  pro- 
jecting angle  in  the  middle,  and  the  bed  side  of  each  angle  has  an 
external  angle  adapted  to  the  same.  This  prevents  the  iron  from 
being  removed  by  the  resistance  of  knots  or  such  sudden  obsta- 
cles :  the  fore  iron  plate  is  cut  with  a  cavity  similar  to  the  common 
rebate  planes.  The  stop  is  placed  between  the  fence  and  sole : 
this  plane  is  in  length  about  seven  inches  and  three  eighths,  and 
in  depth  three  inches  and  five  eighths,  and  the  length  of  each  stem 
eight  inches  and  a  half. 


108  JOIiNERY. 

§  29.  Dado  Grooving  Plane, 

Is  a  channel  plane,  generally  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch 
broad  on  the  sole,  with  a  double  cutter  and  stop,  both  placed  beforo 
the  edge  of  the  iron  which  stands  askew ;  it  throws  the  shaving  , 
off  the  bench.  The  best  kind  of  dado  grooving  planes  have  screw 
stops  of  brass  and  iron  ;  the  common  sort  are  made  of  wood,  to 
slide  stiffly  in  a  vertical  mortise,  and  are  moved  by  the  blow  of  a 
hammer  or  mallet,  by  striking  the  head,  when  the  groove  is 
required  to  be  shallow :  but  when  required  to  be  deep,  and  con- 
sequently the  stop  to  be  driven  back,  a  wooden  punch  must  be 
{ laced  upon  the  bottom  of  the  stop,  and  the  head  of  the  punch 
struck  with  the  hammer  or  mallet,  until  the  guide  of  the  stop 
arrives  at  the  distance  from  the  sole  of  the  plane  that  the  groove 
is  to  be  in  depth  :  the  use  of  this  plane  is  for  tongueing  dado  at 
internal  angles,  for  keying  circular  dado,  grooving  for  library 
shelves,  or  working  a  broad  rebate  across  the  fibres. 


§  30.  Moulding  Planes 

Are  used  in  forming  curved  surfiices  of  many  various  fanciful 
prismatic  sections,  by  way  of  ornament;  thee  surfaces  have  there- 
fore this  property,  that  all  parallel  sections  are  similar  figures. 
Single  mouldings  or  different  mouldings  in  assemblage  have  various 
names,  according  to  their  figure,  combination,  or  situation;  mould, 
ings  are  formed  either  by  a  plane  reversed  to  the  intended  section, 
by  a  fence  and  stop  on  the  plane,  which  causes  them  to  have  the 
same  transverse  section  throughout,  or  otherwise,  by  several  planes 
adapted  as  r.  jarly  as  possible  to  the  different  degrees  of  curvature ; 
this  is  called  working  mouldings  by  hand.  All  new  or  fanciful  forms 
afe  o-enerally  wrought  by  hand,  and  particularly  in  an  assemblage  of 
mouldings,  where  it  would  be  too  expensive  to  make  planes  adapted 
to  the  whole  section,  or  to  any  particular  member  or  members  of 
that  section.    The  length  of  moulding  planes  is  nine  inches  and 


JOINERY. 


109 


three  eighths,  and  the  depth  about  three  inches  and  three  eighths. 
Mouldings  are  said  to  be  stuck  when  formed  by  planes,  and  the 
operation  is  called  sticking.  In  mouldings,  all  internal  sinkings 
which  have  one  flat  side,  and  one  convex  turned  side,  are  called 
quirks. 


§31.  Bead  Plane 

Is  a  moulding  plane  of  a  semi-cylindric  contour,  and  is  generally 
used  in  sticking  a  moulding  of  the  same  name  on  the  edge,  or  on 
the  side  close  to  the  arrise  :  when  the  bead  is  stuck  upon  the  edge 
of  a  piece  of  stuff,  so  as  to  form  a  semi-cylindric  surface  to  the 
whole  thickness,  the  edge  is  said  to  be  beaded  or  rounded.  When 
a  bead  is  stuck  on,  and  from  one  edge  on  the  upper  surface  of  a 
piece  of  stuff,  so  tha-t  the  diameter  may  be  contained  in  the  breadth 
of  that  surface,  but  not  to  occupy  the  whole  breadth  :  then  the 
member  so  formed  has  a  channel  or  sinking  on  the  farther  side 
called  a  quirk,  and  is  therefore  called  bead  and  quirk.  When  the 
edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff  has  been  stuck  with  bea-d  and  quirk  ;  then 
the  vertical  side  turned  upwards  and  stuck  from  the  same  edge  in 
the  same  manner,  another  quirk  will  be  form*ed  u-pon  this  side 
provided  the  breadth  of  this  side  be  equal  to  that  of  the  bead ; 
then  the  curved  surface  will  be  three  fourths  of  a  cylinder,  this  is 
called  bead  and  double  quirk  or  return  bead.  The  fence  is  of  a 
solid  piece  with  the  plane.  The  guide  of  the  fence  is  parallel  to 
the  sides  of  the  plane,  and  tangential  to  the  concave  cylindric 
surface,  and  its  lower  edge  comes  about  one  fourth  or  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  below  the  cylindrical  part,  the  other  edge  o! 
the  cylindrical  part  forms  one  side  of  the  quirk,  and  is  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  guide  of  the  fence.  The  other  side  of  the  quirk 
•9  a  vertical  straight  surface,  and  reaches  as  high  as  the  most  pro-' 
minent  part  of  the  cylindric  surface  of  the  bead.  From  the  upper 
edge  of  this  flat  side  of  the  quirk,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  ver. 
tical  sides  of  the  plane,  proceeds  the  guide  of  the  stop,  which 


V 


no  JOIiNERY. 

prevents  the  bead  from  sinking  deeper  than  the  semi-diameter  of 
the  cylinder,  and  the  guide  of  the  fence  prevents  the  plane  from 
taking  more  of  the  breadth  than  the  diameter.  When  one,  two, 
or  more,  contiguous  semi-cylinders  are  ^unk  within  the  surface  of 
a  piece  of  wood,  with  the  prominent  parts  of  the  curved  surface 
of  each,  in  the  same  surface  as  that  from  which  they  were  sunk, 
this  operation  is  called  reeding,  being  done  in  imitation  of  one  or 
a  bundle  of  a  reeds,  and  each  little  cylinder  is  called  a  reed.  In 
this  case,  the  axis  of  the  reed  is  in  the  same  straight  surface :  but 
this  is  not  always  the  case,  they  are  sometimes  disposed  round  a 
staff  or  rod.  Bead  planes  are  sometimes  so  constructed,  as  to 
have  the  fence  taken  off  or  on  at  pleasure,  by  screws,  for  the 
purpose  of  striking  any  series  of  reeds.  When  the  fence  is  taken 
off,  the  two  sides  form  quirks,  and  are  exactly  similar  and  equal 
to  each  other. 

The  least  sized  bead  is  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch,  the  next 
the  regular  progression  stands  thus  :  i  i\  I  A  Hi  i  h 
the  first  two  only  differ  the  next  three  ,V,  and  from  f  to  | 
of  an  inch,  they  differ  by  }  of  an  inch  each,  the  f  and  f  inch  beads 
are  torus  planes  as  well  as  bead  planes.  The  torus  only  differs 
from  the  bead  in  having  a  fillet  upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  stuff : 
consequently  the  torus  consists  of  a  fillet  and  semi-cylinder.  It 
may  be  observed,  that  whether  there  be  one  or  two  semi-cylinders 
stuck  on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff,  that  without  there  is  a  fillet 
upon  the  edge  they  only  take  the  name  of  beads.  The  torus  is  in 
general  much  larger  than  the  bead  :  but  when  there  are  two  semi^. 
cylinders  with  a  fillet  upon  the  outer  edge,  the  conibination  is 
called  a  double  torus,  and  if  there  is  no  fillet,  it  is  called  a  double 
beadj  even  though  the  one  should  be  much  larger  than  the  other. 

§  32.  A  Snipeshill 

Is  a  moulding  plane  for  forming  a  quirk :  snipesbills  are  of  two 
kinds,  one  for  sinking  the  quirk,  called  a  sinking  snipeshill,  and 


JOINERY. 


Ill 


Ihe  other  for  cleaning  the  vertical  flat  side  of  the  quirk,  called  a 
side  snipesbill.    Each  of  these  two  kinds  are  right  and  left. 

In  the  sinking  snipesbill  the  cutting  edge  is  on  the  sole,  and  the 
extremity  of  the  iron  comes  close  to  the  side  of  the  plane,  which 
forms  the  vertical  side  of  the  quirk ;  the  sole  consists  of  two  parts 
of  a  cylindric  surface  of  contrary  curvature  :  one  next  to  the  edge 
which  forms  the  quirk,  is  concave,  and  the  part  more  remote,  is 
convex. 

The  side  snipesbill  has  its  iron  placed  very  nearly  perpendicu- 
Jar,  with  regard  to  the  sole  of  the  plane,  the  top  of  the  iron  leaning 
about  five  degrees  forward :  this  plane  has  its  cutting  edge  upon 
one  side  or  the  other,  according  to  the  side  or  to  the  hand  it  is 
made  for.    The  iron  stands  askew  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plane. 


5  33.  Hollows  and  Rounds 

Are  mouldings  for  striking  convex  and  concave  cylindrical  sur- 
faces, or  any  segment  or  parts  of  these  surfaces  ;  they  have 
therefore  their  soles  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  is  intended. 
Hollows  and  rounds  are  not  confined  to  cylindric  surfaces,  but  will 
also  stick  those  of  cylindrical  forms,  or  those  which  have  elliptic 
sections,  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  motion  by  which 
they  are  wrought.  Mouldings  depressed  within  the  surface  of  a 
piece  of  wood,  or  those  which  form  quirks,  must  first  be  sunk  by 
the  snipesbill,  and  formed  into  the  intended  shape  by  hollows  and 
rounds.  The  hollow  is  only  used  in  finishing  a  convex  moulding; 
the  rough  is  generally  taken  ofT  with  the  jack  plane,  when  there 
is  room  to  apply  it,  if  not,  with  the  firmer  chisel.  In  making  a 
hollow,  a  rough  excavation  is  first  made  with  a  gouge,  and  then 
finished  with  the  round,  and  sometimes  with  two  rounds,  of  which 
the  sole  of  the  one  that  comes  first  is  a  little  quicker,  and  the  iron 
set  more  rank 


112 


JOINERY. 


§  34.  Stock  and  Bits,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  8. 

The  stock  is  a  wooden  lever,  to  be  turned  round  an  axis  swiftly 
by  hand,  in  order  to  give  the  same  rotative  motion  round  the  axis, 
to  a  piece  of  steel  fixed  in  the  said  axis,  the  steel  being  sharpened 
at  the  extremity,  so  as  to  cut  a  cylindric  hole,  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  axis  of  the  stock. 

The  axis  is  continued  on  both  sides  of  the  handle  or  winch  part ; 
one  part  of  the  axis  is  made  with  a  broad  head,  to  be  placed 
against  the  breast  while  boring,  even  when  pressing  pretty  hard 
upon  the  stock,  and  is  so  constructed  with  a  joint,  as  to  be  sta- 
tionary, while  all  the  other  parts  are  in  motion ;  the  lower  part  of 
the  stock  is  brass,  and  is  fixed  to  it  by  means  of  a  screw  passing 
through  two  ears  of  the  brass  part,  and  through  the  solid  of  the 
wood.  The  brass  part  is  called  the  pad,  which  is  so  contrived, 
as  to  admit  of  different  pieces  of  steel  called  bits,  for  boring  and 
widening  holes  of  various  diameters  in  wood,  and  countersinking, 
both  in  wood  and  iron  ;  that  is,  forming  a  cavity  or  hollow  cone 
on  the  outer  side  of  a  cylindric  hole  to  receive  the  head  of  a 
screw,  or  the  like.  The  upper  part  of  each  bit  inserted  in  the 
stock,  is  the  frustum  of  a  square  pyramid,  which  goes  into  a  hollow 
mortise  of  the  same  form,  and  is  secured  by  means  of  a  spring  fixed 
in  the  pad,  and  which  falls  into  a  notch  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bit. 

The  construction  of  bits  depends  upon  their  use.  Small  bits 
are  used  for  boring  of  wood,  and  have  an  interior  cavity  for  con- 
taining the  core,  separated  from  the  wood  by  the  under  edge. 
The  lower  part  of  the  cavity  is  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  the 
upper  part  where  the  cavity  ends  is  a  part  of  a  long  hollow  oblong 
spheroid,  terminated  upon  the  sides  of  the  bit :  the  exterior  side  is 
also  cylindrical,  as  high  as  that  of  the  interior,  and  thence  dimi- 
nishes for  a  considerable  way  above  the  hollow,  that  it  may 
turn  in  the  hole  with  the  greater  case.  The  section  of  the 
bit  is  the  figure  of  a  crescent.  The  cutting  edge  has  its  basil 
on  the  inside,  and  stands  prominent  in  the  middle ;  this  bit  is 
also  called  a  pin  or  gouge  bit  from  its  being  mostly  used  in 


JOINERY. 


113 


framing  :  it  bores  soft  wood,  as  deal,  with  greater  rapidity  than 
any  other  tool. 


§  35.  The  Centre  BU 

Is  constructed  wkh  a  projecting  conical  point  nearly  in  the  mid- 
dle, called  the  centre  of  the  bit ;  on  the  narrow  vertical  surface, 
the  one  most  remote  from  the  centre  is  a  tooth  with  a  cutting  edge. 
The  under  edge  of  the  bit  on  the  other  side  of  the  centre,  has  a 
projecting  edge  inclined  forward.  The  horizontal  section  of  this 
bit  upwards  is  a  rectangle.  The  axis  of  the  small  cone  in  the 
centre  is  in  the  same  straight  line  as  that  of  the  stock  ;  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  tooth  is  more  prominent  than  the  projecting  edge  on 
the  other  side  of  the  centre,  and  the  vertex  of  the  conic  centre 
still  more  prominent  than  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tooth. 

The  use  of  the  centre  bit  is  to  form  a  cylindric  excavation, 
having  the  upper  point  of  the  axis  of  the  intended  hole,  given  on 
the  surface  of  the  wood  :  the  centre  of  the  bit  is  first  fixed  in  this 
point,  then  placing  the  axis  of  the  stock  and  bit  in  the  axis  of  the 
intended  hole  to  be  bored,  with  the  head  of  the  stock  against  your 
breast,  lay  hold  of  the  handle  and  turn  the  stock  swiftly  round, 
then  the  hollow  cone  made  by  the  centre  will  cause  the  point  of 
the  tooth  to  move  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  cut  the 
cylindric  surface  progressively  as  it  is  turned  round,  and  the  pro- 
jecting  edge  upon  the  other  side  of  the  centre,  will  cut  out  the 
core  in  a  spiral  formed  shaving :  centre  bits  are  of  various  sizes, 
in  order  to  accommodate  bores  of  different  diameters. 


§  36.  Countersinks 

Are  bits  for  widening  the  upper  part  of  a  hole  in  wood  or  iron, 
for  the  head  of  a  screw  or  pin,  and  have  a  conical  head.  Those  for 
wood  have  one  cutter  in  the  conic  surface,  and  have  the  cutting 
edge  more  remote  from  the  axis  of  the  cone  than  any  other  part  of 

No.  8.  o 


114 


JOINERY. 


the  surface.  Countersinks  for  brass  have  eleven  or  twelve  cutters 
round  the  conic  surface,  so  that  the  horizontal  section  represents 
a  circular  saw.  These  are  called  rose  countersinks.  The  conic 
angle  at  the  vertex  is  about  ninety  degrees.  Countersinks  for 
iron  have  two  cutting  edges,  forming  an  obtuse  angle. 


§  37.  Rimers 

Are  bits  for  widening  holes :  for  this  purpose  they  are  of  a  py- 
ramidical  structure,  having  their  vertical  angle  about  three  degrees 
and  a  half.  The  hole  must  first  be  pierced  by  means  of  a  drill  or 
punch ;  when  the  rimer  is  put  into  the  stock,  and  the  point  into 
the  hole,  and  being  turned  swiftly  round,  the  edges  will  cut  or 
scrape  off  the  interior  surface  of  the  hole  as  it  sinks  downwards, 
by  pressing  upon  the  head  of  the  stock.  Brass  rimers  have  their 
horizontal  sections  of  a  semicircular  figure,  and  those  for  iron 
polygonal :  of  these  some  have  their  sections  square,  some  hexa. 
gonal,  and  some  octagonal, 

§  38.   The  Taper  Shell  Bit 

Is  conical  both  within  and  without,  and  the  horizontal  section  a 
crescent,  the  cutting  edge  is  the  meeting  of  the  exterior  and  in. 
terior  conic  surface.  The  use  of  this  bit  is  for  widening  holes  in 
wood. 

Besides  the  above  bits,  some  stocks  are  provided  with  a  screw 
driver  for  sinking  small  screws  into  wood  with  greater  rapidity 
than  could  be  done  by  hand. 


§  39.  The  Brad  Awl,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  3. 

Is  the  smallest  boring  tool,  its  handle  is  the  frustum  of  a  eone 
tapering  downwards.    The  steel  part  is  also  conical,  but  tapering 


JOINERY. 


115 


upwards,  and  the  cutting  edge  is  the  meeting  of  two  basils,  ground 
equally  from  each  side.  A  hole  is  made  by  placing  the  edge 
transverse  to  the  fibres  of  the  wood,  and  pushing  the  brad  awl  into 
the  wood,  turning  it  to  and  fro  by  a  reciprocal  motion.  The  core 
is  not  brought  out  as  by  the  other  boring  instruments ;  but  the 
wood  is  displaced  and  condensed  around  the  hole.  Brad  awls  are 
used  for  making  a  way  for  brads,  and  are  of  several  sizes ;  they 
are  not  so  apt  to  split  the  wood  as  the  gimlet. 

§  40.  CJiisels  in  general.    Pl.  13.  Figs.  3,  4,  5. 

A  chisel  is  an  edge  tool  for  cutting  wood,  either  by  leaning  on 
it,  or  by  striking  it  with  a  mallet.  The  lower  part  of  the  chisel  is 
the  frustum  of  a  cuneus  or  wedge,  the  cutting  edge  is  always  on, 
and  generally  at  right  angles  to  the  side.  The  basil  is  ground 
entirely  from  one  side.  The  two  sides  taper  in  a  small  degree 
upwards,  but  the  two  narrow  surfaces  taper  downwards  in  a  greater 
degree.  The  upper  part  of  the  iron  has  a  shoulder,  which  is  a 
plain  surface  at  right  angles  to  the  middle  line  of  the  chisel.  From 
this  plain  surface  rises  a  prong  in  the  form  of  a  square  pyramid, 
the  middle  line  of  which  is  the  same  as  the  middle  iin.e  of  the 
cuneus  or  wedge :  the  prong  is  inserted  and  fixed  in  a  socket  of  a 
piece  of  wood  of  the  same  form.  This  piece  of  wood  is  called  the 
handle,  and  is  generally  the  frustum  of  an  octagonal  pyramid, 
the  middle  line  of  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  chisel ;  the 
tapering  sides  of  the  handle  diminish  downwards,  and  terminate 
upwards  in  an  octagonal  dome.  The  use  of  the  shoulder  is  for 
preventing  the  prong  from  splitting  the  handle  while  being  struck 
with  the  m.allet.  The  chisel  is  made  stronger  from  the  cuttins 
edge  to  the  shoulder,  as  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  lever,  the  prop 
being  at  or  near  the  middle,  and  the  power  at  the  handle,  and  the 
resistance  at  the  cutting  edge  ;  some  chisels  are  made  with  iron  on 
one  side,  and  steel  on  the  other,  and  others  consist  entirely  of  steel. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  chisels,  as  the  paring  chisel,  the 
mortise  chisel,  the  socket  chisel,  and  the  ripping  chisel. 


JOINERY. 


^  41.  The  Firmer  Chisel,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  4. 

Is  used  both  by  carpenters  and  joiners  in  cutting  away  the 
superfluous  v/ood  by  thin  chips.    The  best  are  made  of  cast  steel. 

When  there  is  a  great  deal  of  superfluous  wood  to  be  cut  away, 
sometimes  a  strong  chisel  consisting  of  an  iron  back  and  steel  face 
is  first  used,  by  driving  it  into  the  wood  with  a  mallet,  and  then  a 
slighter  one,  consisting  entirely  of  steei  sharpened  to  a  very  fine 
edge,  is  used  in  the  finish.  The  first  used  is  called  a  firmer,  and 
the  last,  a  paring  chisel,  in  working  which,  only  the  shoulder  or 
hand  is  employed  in  forcing  it  into  the  wood. 


§  42.  The  Mortise  Chisel,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  5. 

Is  made  exceedingly  strong,  for  cutting  out  a  rectangular  pris- 
matic cavity  across  the  fibres,  quite  through  or  very  deep  in  a 
piece  of  wood,  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  a  rectangular  pin  of  the 
same  form  on  the  end  of  another  piece  of  wood,  and  thereby  fas- 
tening  the  two  pieces  of  wood  together.  The  cavity  is  called  a 
mortise,  and  the  pin  inserted  a  tenon  :  and  the  chisel  used  for 
cutting  out  the  cavity  is  therefore  called  a  mortise  chisel.  As 
the  thickness  of  this  chisel  from  the  face  to  the  back  is  great,  in 
order  to  withstand  the  percussive  force  of  the  mallet ;  and  as  the 
angle  which  the  basil  makes  with  the  face  is  about  twenty-five 
degrees,  the  slant  dimensio-n  of  the  basil  is  very  great.  This  chisel 
is  only  used  by  percussive  force,  given  by  the  mallet. 


§  43.  The  Gouge 

Is  used  in  cutting  an  excavation  of  a  concave  form,  and  is  similar 
to  the  chisel,  except  that  the  bottom  part  is  cylindrical  both  within 
and  without ;  the  basil  is  made  on  the  inside  ;  the  best  are  those 
which  are  made  of  cast  steel. 


JOINERY. 


117 


§  44.  The  Drawing  Knife 

Is  an  oblique  ended  chisel,  or  old  knife,  for  drawing  in  the  ends 
of  tenons,  by  making  a  deep  incision  with  the  sharp  edge,  by  the 
edge  of  the  tongue  of  a  square  :  for  this  purpose  a  small  part  is 
cut  out  in  the  form  of  a  triangular  prism,  and  consequently  the 
hollow  will  contain  one  interior  angle  and  two  sides,  one  side  next 
;he  body  of  the  wood  being  perpendicular,  and  the  other  inclined. 
The  use  of  this  excavation  is  to  enter  the  saw,  and  keep  it  close 
to  the  shoulder,  and  to  make  the  end  of  the  rail  quite  smooth,  for 
the  saw  will  not  only  be  liable  to  get  out  of  its  course  into  a  new 
direction,  but  may  tear  and  scratch  the  wood  at  the  shoulder. 

§  45.  Of  Saws  in  general  Pl.  18.  Fig.  6,  7,  8,  9,  13. 

A  saw  is  a  thin  plate  of  steel  indented  on  the  edge  for  cutting, 
by  a  reciprocal  change  in  the  direction  of  motion,  pushing  it  from, 
and  drawing  it  towards  you.  The  cut  which  it  makes,  or  the  part 
taken  away  in  a  board,  is  a  thin  slice,  contained  between  parallel 
planes,  or  a  deep  narrow  groove  of  equal  thickness.  Saws  are  of 
several  kinds,  as  the  ripping  saw,  the  half  ripper,  the  hand  saw, 
the  panel  saw,  the  tenon  saw,  the  sash  saw,  the  dove-tail  saw,  the 
compass  saw,  and  the  key-hole  or  turning  saw.  The  teeth  of  these 
saws  are  all  formed  so  as  to  contain  an  angle  of  sixty  degrees,  both 
external  and  internal  angles,  and  inchne  more  or  less  forward  as 
the  saw  is  made  to  cut  transverse  to,  or  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibres :  they  are  also  of  different  lengths  and  breadths,  according 
to  their  use.  The  teeth  of  a  saw  are  bent  alternately  to  each 
side,  that  the  plate  may  clear  the  wood. 

§  46.  The  Ripping  Saw 

Is  used  in  dividing  or  slitting  wood  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres; 

the  teeth  are  very  large,  there  being  eight  in  three  inches,  and 
k2 


JOINERY. 


the  front  of  the  teeth  stand  perpendicular  to  the  line  which  ranges 
with  the  points:  the  length  of  the  plate  is  about  twenty  eight  inches. 


§  47.  The  Half  Ripper 

Is  also  used  in  dividing  wood  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres  :  the 
.cngth  of  the  plate  of  this  is  the  same  as  the  former,  but  there  are 
only  three  teeth  in  the  inch. 

§  48.  The  Hand  Saw,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  6. 

Is  both  used  for  cutting  the  wood  in  a  direction  of  the  fibres  and 
cross  cutting :  for  this  purpose  the  teeth  are  more  reclined  than 
the  two  former  saws :  there  are  fifteen  teeth  contained  in  four 
inches.    The  length  of  the  plate  is  twenty  six  inches. 


§49.  Tlie  Panel  Saw 

Is  used  for  cutting  very  thin  wood,  either  in  a  direction  of,  or 
transverse  to  the  fibres.  The  length  of  the  plate  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  hand  saw,  but  there  are  only  about  six  teeth  in  the 
inch.  The  plates  of  the  hand  saw  and  panel  saw  are  thinner 
than  the  ripping  saw. 

§  50.  The  Tenon  Saw,  Pi.  13.  Fig.  7. 

Is  generally  used  for  cutting  wood  transverse  to  the  fibres,  as 
the  shoulders  of  tenons.  The  plate  of  a  tenon  saw  is  from  four- 
teen to  nineteen  inches  in  length,  and  the  number  of  teeth  in  an  inch 
from  eight  to  ten.  As  this  saw  is  not  intended  to  cut  through  the 
wood  its  whole  breadth,  and  as  the  plate  would  be  too  thin  to  make 
a  straight  kerf,  or  to  keep  it  from  buckling,  there  is  a  thick  piece 
of  iron  fixed  upon  the  other  edge  for  this  purpose,  called  the  back. 


JOINERY. 


119 


The  opening  through  the  hajidle  for  the  fingers  of  this  and  the 
foregoing  saws  is  inclosed  all  round  ;  and  on  this  account  is  called 
a  double  handle. 

§  51.  The  Sash  Saw,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  8. 

Is  used  by  sash  makers  in  forming  the  tenons  of  sashes :  the 
plate  is  eleven  inches  in  length.  The  inch  contains  about  thirteen 
tee-th ;  this  saw  is  sometimes  backed  with  iron,  but  more  frequently 
with  brass. 

§  52.  The  Dove-tail  Saw 

Is  used  in  dove-tailing  drawers.  The  length  of  the  plate  is 
about  nine  inches,  and  the  inch  contains  about  fifteen  teeth.  This 
plate  is  also  backed  with  brass.  The  handles  of  the  two  last  saws 
are  only  single* 


§  53.  The  Compass  Saw,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  9. 

Is  for  cutting  the  surfaces  of  wood  into  curved  surfaces :  for 
this  purpose  it  is  narrow,  without  a  back,  thicker  on  the  cuttmg 
edge,  as  the  teeth  have  no  set.  The  plate  is  about  an  inch  broad, 
next  to  the  handle,  and  diminishes  to  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
at  the  other  extremity ;  here  are  about  five  teeth  in  the  inch. 
The  handle  is  single. 


§  54.  The  Key.hole,  or  Turning  Saw 

Is  similar  to  the  compass  saw  in  the  plate,  but  the  handle  is 
long,  and  perforated  from  end  to  end,  so  that  the  plate  may  be 
inserted  any  distance  within  the  handle.  The  lower  part  of  the 
Handle  is  provided  with  a  pad,  through  which  is  inserted  a  screw, 
for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  plate  in  the  handle  :  this  saw  is 


120 


JOINERY. 


used  for  turriitig  out  quick  curves,  as  key-holes,  and  is  therefore 
frequently  called  a  key-hole  saw. 


§  55.  The  Hatchet 

Is  a  small  axe,  used  chiefly  in  cutting  away  the  superfluous 
wood  from  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff,  when  the  part  to  be  cut 
away  is  too  small  to  be  sawed. 

§  56.  The  Square,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  11. 

Consists  of  two  rectangular  prismatic  pieces  of  wood,  or  one  of 
wood,  and  the  other  which  is  the  thinest,  of  steel,  fixed  together, 
each  at  one  of  their  extremities,  so  as  to  form  a  right  angle  both 
interjially  and  externally ;  the  interior  right  angle  is  therefore 
called  the  inner  square,  and  the  exterior  one  the  outer  square. 
The  side  of  the  square  which  contains  the  mortise,  or  through 
which  the  end  of  the  other  piece  passes,  is  made  very  thick,  not 
only  that  it  may  be  strong  enough  for  containing  the  tenon  of  the 
other  piece,  but  that  it  should  keep  steady  and  flat  when  used ; 
and  the  piece  which  contains  the  tenon  is  made  thin,  in  order  to 
observe  more  clearly  whether  the  edge  of  the  square  and  the 
wood  coincide.  The  thick  side  of  the  square  is  called  the  stock 
or  handle,  and  the  narrow  surface  of  the  handle  is  always  applied 
to  the  vertical  surface  of  the  wood.  The  thin  side  of  the  square 
is  called  the  blade,  and  the  inner  edge  of  the  blade  is  always 
applied  to  the  horizontal  surface  of  the  wood.  Squares  are  of 
different  dimensions  according  to  their  use  :  some  are  employed 
in  trying-up  wood,  and  some  for  setting  out  work  ;  the  former  is 
called  a  trying  square,  and  the  latter  a  setting-out  square ;  the 
blade  ought  to  be  of  steel,  and  always  ought  to  project  beyond  the 
end  of  the  stock,  particularly  if  made  of  wood.  The  stock  is 
always  made  thick,  that  it  may  be  used  as  a  kind  of  fence  in  keep- 
ing the  blade  at  right  angles  to  the  arris. 


JOINERY. 


121 


§  67.  To  prove  a  Square. 

Take  a  straight  edged  board  which  has  been  faced  up,  and 
apply  the  inner  edge  of  the  stock  of  the  square  to  the  straight 
edge  of  the  board,  laying  the  side  of  the  tongue  upon  the  face  of 
the  board ;  with  a  sharp  point  draw  a  line  upon  the  surface  of  the 
board  by  the  edge  of  the  square  :  turn  the  square  so  that  the  other 
side  of  the  blade  may  lie  upon  the  fice  of  the  board  ;  bring  the 
stock  close  to  the  straight  edge  of  the  board,  then  if  the  edge  of 
the  square  does  not  lie  over  the  line,  or  any  part  of  the  Hue,  the 
square  must  be  shifted  until  it  does,  then  if  the  edge  of  the  tongue 
of  the  square  and  the  line  coincide,  the  square  is  already  true : 
but  if  there  is  an  open  space  between  the  farther  side  of  the  board 
and  the  straight  edge,  that  is,  if  the  farther  end  of  the  edge  of  the 
tongue  of  the  square  meets  the  farther  end  of  the  line  from  the 
straight  edge,  draw  another  line  by  the  edge  of  the  tongue  of 
the  square,  and  these  two  lines  will  form  an  acute  angle  with  each 
other,  the  vertex  of  which  will  be  at  the  farther  side  of  the  board, 
and  the  opening  towards  the  straight  edge  :  take  the  middle  of  the 
distance  between  the  two  .lines  at  the  arris,  and  draw  a  hne  from 
the  middle  point  to  the  point  of  concourse  of  the  lines :  then  the 
blade  of  the  square  must  be  shot  or  made  straight,  so  as  to  coin 
cide  with  this  last  line.  The  same,  or  a  similar  operation,  must  be 
repeated,  if  the  contrary  way. 


§  58.  The  Bevel,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  12. 

Consists  of  a  blade  and  handle  the  same  as  the  square,  except 

that  the  tongue  is  made  movealle  on  a  joint  that  it  may  be  set  to 

any  angle.    When  many  pieces  of  stuff  are  to  be  tried  up  to  a 

particular  angle,  an  immoveable  bevel  ought  to  be  made  for  the 

purpose,  for  unless  very  great  care  be  taken  in  laying  down  the 

moveable  bevel,  it  will  be  liable  to  shift, 
p 


122 


JOINERY. 


§  59.  The  Gauge,  Pl.  13.  Fig.  13. 

Is  an  instrument  for  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  the  arris  of  a 
piece  of  stuff,  on  one  or  both  of  the  adjoining  surfaces.  It  con- 
sists  of  a  thick  rectangular  prismatic  part,  with  a  mortise  of  the 
same  figure,  cut  perpendicularly  through  it,  between  two  of  its  op- 
posite sides,  and  this  prism  is  called  the  head.  In  the  mortise  is 
inserted  another  prism  exactly  made  to  fill  its  cavity,  this  prism  is 
called  the  stem ;  at  one  end  of  the  stem  is  a  steel  tooth  projecting 
perpendicularly  from  the  surface,  so  that  by  striking  one  end  or 
other  with  the  mallet,  the  tooth  is  moved  farther  or  nearer  to  the 
adjacent  surface  of  the  head,  as  the  distance  may  be  wanted  be 
tween  the  arris  of  the  stuff  and  the  line  to  be  marked  out  by  the 
tooth. 

§60.  The  Mortise  Gauge 

Is  constructed  similar  to  the  common  gauge,  but  has  two  teeth 
instead  of  one.  One  tooth  is  stationary  at  the  end  of  the  stem, 
and  the  other  is  moveable  in  a  mortise  between  the  fixed  tooth  and 
the  head,  so  that  the  distances  of  the  teeth  from  each  other,  and 
of  each  tooth  from  the  head,  may  be  set  in  any  ratio  or  propor- 
tion  to  each  other,  that  the  thickness  of  a  tenon  or  wood  may  re- 
quire. The  use  of  this  gauge  is,  as  its  name  implies,  for  gauging 
mortises  and  tenons. 


§  61.  The  Side  Hook,  Pl.  12.  Fig.  11. 

Is  a  rectangular  prismatic  piece  of  wood  with  two  projecting  knobs 
upon  the  alternate  sides  of  it.  Every  joiner  ought  to  be  provided 
with  at  least  two  side  hooks  of  equal  size.  Their  use  is  to  hold  a 
board  fast,  the  fibres  of  the  board  running  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  bench,  while  the  workman  is  cutting  across  the  fibres 
with  a  saw  or  grooving  plane,  or  in  traversing  the  wood,  which  is 
planing  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  fibres,  or  with  very  little 
obliquity,  s 


JOINERY. 


123 


§  62.  Tlie  Mitre  Box 

Is  used  for  cutting  a  piece  of  tried-up  stuff  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees  with  two  of  its  surfaces,  or  at  least  to  one  of  the  ar- 
rises, and  perpendicular  to  the  other  two  sides,  or  at  least  to  one 
of  them  obliquely  to  the  fibres.  The  mitre  box  consists  of  three 
boards,  two  called,  the  sides  being  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the 
third,  the  bottom  :  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  sides  are  all  parallel : 
the  sides  are  of  equal  height,  and  cut  with  a  saw  into  two  direc- 
tions  of  straight  surfaces  at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  to  l\io 
bottom,  forming  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  sides. 


§  63.  The  Shooting  Block 

Is  two  boards  fixed  together,  the  sides  of  which  are  lapped  upon 
each  other,  so  as  to  form  a  rebate  for  the  purpose  of  making  a 
short  joint,  either  oblique  to  the  fibres,  or  in  their  direction.  By 
this  instrument  the  joints  of  panels  for  framing  are  made,  also  the 
joints  for  the  mitres  of  architraves,  or  the  like. 


§  64.  The  Straight  Edge 

Is  a  piece  of  stuff  or  board  made  perfectly  straight  on  the  edge, 
in  order  to  make  other  edges  straight,  or  to  plane  the  face  of  a 
board  straight. 

Straight  edges  are  of  different  dimensions,  as  the  magnitude  of 
the  work  may  require. 


§  65.  Winding  Sticks 

Are  two  pieces  of  wood  of  equal  breadth  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
certaining whether  a  surface  be  straight  or  not ;  if  not,  the  surface 
must  be  brought  to  a  straight  by  trial. 


124 


JOINERY. 


§  66.  The  Mitre  Square 

Is  so  called,  because  it  bisects  the  right  angle,  or  mitres  the 
square,  and  is  therefore  an  immoveable  bevel,  made  to  strike  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  one  side  or  edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff, 
upon  the  adjoining  side  or  edge  of  the  said  piece  of  stuff :  it  con- 
sists  of  a  broad  thin  board  let  in,  or  tongued  into  a  piece  on  the 
edge,  called  the  fence  or  handle  ;  the  fence  projects  equally  upon 
each  side  of  the  thin  piece  or  blade,  of  which  one  of  the  edges  is 
made  to  contain  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  nearest 
edge  of  the  handle,  or  of  that  in  which  the  blade  is  inserted.  The 
inside  of  the  handle  is  called  the  guide:  the  handle  may  be  about 
an  inch  thick,  two  inches  broad,  the  blade  about  a  quarter  of  an 
ineh,  or  about  one  eighth  and  a  sixteenth.  The  blade  may  be 
about  seven  or  eight  inches  broad ;  but  mitre  squares  must  be  of 
various  sizes,  according  to  the  work,  and  consequently  of  different 
thicknesses. 

To  use  the  mitre  square,  lay  the  guide  of  the  handle  upon  the 
arris,  slide  it  along  the  stuff  until  the  oblique  edge  comes  to  the 
place  required,  then  draw  a  line  by  this  edge ;  the  angle  of  the 
mitre  may  be  struck  either  way,  according  to  the  direction  re- 
quired,  by  turning  the  mitre  square. 


JOINERY. 


125  t 


§  G7.  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES  LN  JOINERY. 

PLATE  XII. 

TOOLS. 

Fig.  1  the  jack  plane,  a  the  stock,  h  the  tote  or  handle,  being 
a  single  tote,  c  the  iron,  d  the  wedge  for  tightening  the  iron,  e  the 
orifice  or  place  of  discharge  for  the  shavings. 

Fig.  2  the  trying  plane,  the  parts  are  the  same  as  the  jack 
plane,  except  that  the  hollow  of  the  tote  is  surrounded  with  wood, 
and  is  therefore  called  a  double  tote. 

Fig.  3  is  the  smoothing  plane  without  a  tote,  the  hand-hold 
being  at  the  hind  end  of  the  plane. 

Fig.  4  the  iron,  No.  1.  the  cover  for  breaking  the  shaving, 
screwed  upon  the  top  of  the  iron,  in  order  to  prevent  the  tearing 
of  the  wood,  in  a  front  view  :  No.  2.  front  of  the  iron  without  the 
cover,  showing  the  slit  or  the  screw  which  fastens  the  cover  to 
the  iron :  No.  3.  profile  of  iron  and  cover  screwed  together. 

Fig.  5  the  wedge  for  tightening  the  iron:  No.  1.  longitudinal 
section  of  the  ^\edge  :  No.  2.  front,  showing  the  hollow  below  for 
the  head  of  the  screw. 

Fig.  6  sash  fillister,  for  throwing  on  the  bench,  a  head  of  one 
stem,  h  tail  of  the  other,  c  iron,  d  wedge,  e  thumb  screw  for  moving 
the  stop  up  and  down,ff  fence  for  regulating  the  distance  of  the 
rebate  from  the  arris. 

Fig.  7  the  moving  fillister  for  throwing  the  shaving  on  the 
bench  :  No.  1.  right  hand  side  of  the  plane,  a  brass  stop,  h  thumb 
screw  of  do.  c  d  e  tooth,  the  upper  part  c  d  on  the  outside  of  the 
neck,  and  the  part  d  e  passing  through  the  solid  of  the  body  with 
a  small  part  open  above,  e,  for  the  tang  of  the  iron  tooth,  /  f  the 
guide  of  the  fence  :  No.  2.  bottom  of  the  plane  turned  up,  a  the 
guide  of  the  stop,  ff  the  fence,  showing  the  screws  for  regulating 
the  guide,  g  g  the  mouth  and  cutting  edge  of  the  iron. 

Fig.  8  the  plow,  the  same  with  regard  to  the  stem  fence  and 
stop,  and  also  in  other  respects  as  the  sash  fillister,  except  the 
sole,  which  is  a  narrow  iron. 


126 


JOINERY. 


Fig.  9  the  mallet. 
Fig.  10  the  hammer. 

Fig.  1 1  the  side  hook  for  cutting  the  shoulders  of  tenons. 
Fig.  12  the  v/ork  bench,  a  the  bench  hook,  h  h  the  screw 
check,  c  c  handle  screw,  d  end  of  guide. 


PLATE  XIII. 

TOOLS. 

Fig.  1  stock,  into  which  is  fixed  a  centre  bit. 

Fig.  2  No.  1.  the  gimlet :  No.  2.  the  lower  part  at  full  size. 

Fig.  3  No.  1.  the  brad  awl :  No.  2.  the  lower  end  turned  edge- 
ways :  No.  3.  the  lower  end  turned  side-ways. 

Fig.  4  No.  1.  the  paring  chisel:  No.  2.  the  lower  end  turned 
edge-ways  with  the  basil. 

Fig.  5  the  mortise  chisel :  No.  1.  side  of  the  chisel:  No.  2. 
front :  No.  3.  lower  end  with  the  basil. 

Fig.  6  hand  saw. 

Fig.  7  tenon  saw,  with  back  generally  of  iron. 

Fig.  8  sash  saw,  backed  generally  with  brass. 

Fig.  9  compass  saw  for  cutting  curved  pieces  of  wood. 

Fig.  10  key  hole  saw,  a  the  pad  in  which  are  inserted  a  spring 
and  two  screws,  for  fixing  the  saw  to  any  length. 

N.  B.  The  hand  saw  and  tenon  saw  have  what  are  called 
double  handles,  and  the  tenon  and  compass  saws  single  handles. 
The  position  and  form  of  the  handle  depends  on  the  position  of 
the  working  direction  of  the  saw. 

Fig.  11  the  square,  a  b  c  the  outer  square,  d  e  f  the  inner 
square,  a  d  e  the  stock  or  handle,  b  cf  e  the  blade. 

Fig.  12  the  moveable  bevel,  a  h  the  stock,  b  c  the  blade. 

Fig.  13  the  gauge,  a  a  the  stem,  b  b  the  head  which  moves,  e 
the  tooth  which  marks. 


\ 


JOINERY. 


127 


PLATE  XIV. 

MOULDINGS. 

§  68.  To  draw  the  several  kinds  of  Mouldings  made  by  Joiners, 

An  astragal  is  a  moulding  of  a  semi-circular  profile  ;  its  con. 
struction  is  so  simple  that  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  say  any 
thing  concerning  it.    Fig.  1. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  beads,  one  is  called  a  cocked  bead, 
when  it  projects  beyond  the  surface  to  which  it  is  attached,  see 
Fig.  2 ;  and  the  other  is  called  a  sunk  bead,  when  the  sinking  is 
depressed  beneath  the  surface  of  the  material  to  which  it  is  at- 
tached, that  is,  when  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  bead  is  in  the 
same  surface  with  that  of  the  material.  Fig.  3. 

A  torus  in  architecture  is  a  moulding  of  the  same  profile  as  a 
bead ;  the  only  difference  is,  when  the  two  are  combined  in  the 
same  piece  of  work,  the  torus  is  of  greater  magnitude,  as  Fig.  4 ; 
in  Joinery  the  torus  is  always  accompanied  with  a  fillet.  Fig.  5. 
single  torus  moulding. 

The  Roman  ovolo  or  quarter  rounds  as  called  by  joiners,  is  the 
quadrant  of  a  circle.  Fig.  6.  When  the  projection  and  height  are 
unequal,  as  in  Fig.  7,  take  the  height  B  C,  and  from  the  point  B 
describe  an  arc  at  C,  and  with  the  same  radius  from  A,  describe 
another  arc  cutting  the  former  at  D,  with  the  distance  A  D  or  D  B 
describe  the  profile  A  B.  This  is  generally  accompanied  with 
fillets  above  and  below,  as  in  Fig.  7. 

The  cavetto  is  a  concave  moulding,  the  regular  profile  of  which 
is  the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  Fig.  8 ;  its  description  is  the  same  as 
the  ovolo. 

A  scotia  is  a  concave  moulding  receding  at  the  top,  and  pro- 
jecting  at  the  bottom,  which  in  this  respect  is  contrary  both  to  the 
ovolo  and  cavetto  ;  it  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  its  profile  consists 
of  two  quadrants  of  circles  of  different  radii,  or  it  may  be  consi- 
dered  as  a  semi-ellipse  taken  upon  two  conjugate  diameters.  Fig.  9. 

To  describe  the  scotia*  divide  the  height  A  B  into  three  equal 


128 


JOINERY. 


parts,  at  the  point  2  draw  the  line  2  C  D,  being  one-third  from 
the  top,  draw  E  C  perpendicular  to  C  D,  with  the  centre  C  and 
and  distance  C  E  describe  the  quadrant  E  F ;  take  the  height  A  2 
and  make  F  D  equal  to  it :  draw  D  G  perpendicular  to  F  D,  from 
D  with  the  distance  D  F  describe  the  arc  F  G,  and  E  F  G  will  be 
the  profile  of  the  scotia.  This  moulding  is  peculiarly  applied  to 
the  bases  of  columns,  and  makes  a  distinguishing  line  of  shadow 
between  the  torii. 

The  ogee  is  a  moulding  of  contrary  curvature,  and  is  of  two 
kinds :  when  the  profile  of  the  projecting  part  is  concave,  and 
consequently  the  receding  part  convex,  the  ogee  is  called  a  cima- 
recta.  Figs.  10  and  11  ;  and  when  the  contrary,  it  is  then  called 
a  cima-reversa.  Fig.  12. 

To  describe  the  cima-recta  when  the  projection  of  the  moulding 
is  equal  to  its  height,  and  when  required  to  be  of  a  thick  curvature, 
Fig.  10.  Join  the  projections  ot  the  fillets  A  and  B  by  the  straight 
line  A  B;  bisect  A  B  at  C,  draw  E  C  D  parallel  to  the  fillet  F  A, 
draw  A  D  and  B  E  perpendicular  to  F  B ;  from  the  point  E 
describe  the  quadrant  B  C,  and  from  the  point  D  describe  the 
quadrant  A  C,  then  B  C  A  is  the  profile. 

To  describe  the  cima-recta  when  the  height  and  projection  are 
unequal,  and  when  it  is  required  to  be  of  a  flat  curvature,  Fig.  11. 
Join  A  B  and  bisect  it  in  C,  with  the  distance  B  C  or  C  A  from 
the  point  A  describe  the  arc  C  D,  from  C  with  the  same  radius 
describe  the  arc  A  D  cutting  the  former  in  D,  the  foot  of  the 
compass  still  remaining  in  C  describe  the  arc  B  E,  from  B  with 
the  same  radius  describe  the  arc  C  E,  from  the  point  D  describe 
the  arc  A  C,  from  the  point  E  describe  the  arc  C  B,  then  will 
A  C  B  be  the  profile  required. 

The  cima-reversa,  Fig.  12,  is  described  in  the  same  manner. 
Quirk  mouldings  sometimes  occasion  confusion  as  to  their  figure 
particularly  when  removed  from  the  eye,  so  as  frequently  to  make 
one  moulding  appear  as  two. 


JOIxNERY. 


129 


PLATE  XV. 

§  69.  MOULDINGS. 

The  names  of  mouldings  according  to  their  situatioa  and  com. 
bination,  in  various  pieces  of  joiners'  work- 
Fig.  1  edge  said  to  be  rounded. 
Fig.  2  quirked  bead  or  bead,  and  quirk. 
Fig.  3  bead  and  double  quirk,  or  return  bead. 
Fig.  4  double  bead,  or  double  bead  and  quirk. 
Fig.  5  single  torus. 

Fig.  6  double  torus.  Here  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  dis- 
tinction  between  torus  mouldings  and  beads  in  joinery  is,  the  outer 
edge  of  the  former  always  terminates  with  a  fillet,  whether  the 
torus  be  double  or  single,  whether  in  beads  there  is  no  fillet  on 
the  outer  edge. 

Figs.  7,  8,  9  single,  double,  and  triple  reeded  mouldings;  semi- 
cylindric  mouldings  are  denominated  reeds,  either  when  they  are 
terminated  by  a  straight  surface  equally  protuberant  on  both  sides, 
as  in  these  figures,  or  disposed  longitudinally  round  the  circum 
ference  of  a  shaft ;  but  if  only  termmated  on  one  side  with  a  flush 
surface,  they  are  then  either  beads  or  torus  mouldings. 

Fig.  10  reeds  disposed  round  the  convex  surface  of  a  cylinder. 
Figs.  11,  12,  13  fluted  work.  When  the  flutes  are  semi-circu- 
lar,  as  in  Fig.  11,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  some  dis- 
tance betvveen  them,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  bring  their 
junction  to  an  arris ;  but  in  flutes,  the  sections  of  which  are  flat 
segments,  the  flutes  generally  meet  each  other  without  any  inter- 
mediate straight  surface  between  them.  The  reason  of  this  is, 
ihat  the  light  and  shade  of  the  adjoining  hollows  are  more  con- 
trasted,  the  angle  of  their  meeting  being  more  acute,  than  if  a  flat 
space  were  formed  between  them.  See  Figs.  12  and  13,  fluting 
round  the  convex  surface  of  a  cylinder. 


Nos.  9  &  10.  Q 


130 


JOINERY. 


PLATE  XVI. 

§  70.  Mouldings  of  Doors,  6fC, 

The  different  denominations  of  framed  doors,  according  to  their 
mouldings  and  panels,  and  framed  work  in  general.  The  figures 
in  the  plates  to  which  these  descriptions  refer,  are  sections  of 
doors,  through  one  of  the  stiles  taking  in  a  small  part  of  the  panel, 
or  they  may  be  considered  as  a  vertical  section  through  the  top 
rail,  showing  part  of  the  panel. 

Fig.  1  the  ffaming  is  without  mouldings,  and  the  panel  a  straight 
surface  on  both  sides :  this  is  denominated  doors  square  and  flat 
panel  on  both  sides. 

Fig.  2  the  framing  has  a  quirked  ovolo,  and  a  fillet  on  one  side, 
but  without  mouldings  on  the  other,  and  the  panel  flat  on  both 
sides  ;  this  is  denominated  doors  quirked  ovolo,  fillet  and  flat,  with 
square  back. 

Fig.  3  diffors  only  from  the  last  in  having  a  bead  instead  of  a 
fillet,  and  is  therefore  denominated  quirked  ovolo  bead  and  flat 
panel,  with  square  back. 

Fig.  4  has  an  additional  fillet  on  the  framing,  to  what  there  is 
in  Fig.  3,  and  is  therefore  denominated  quirked  ovolo  bead,  fillet 
and  flat  panel,  with  square  back. 

Note.  When  the  back  is  said  to  be  square,  as  in  Figs.  2,  3,  4, 
the  meanin<i  that  there  are  no  mouldings  on  the  framing,  and 
the  panel  is  a  straight  surface  on  one  side  of  the  door. 

Fig.  6  the  framing  struck  with  quirk  ogee  and  quirked  bead  on 
one  side,  and  square  on  the  other;  the  surface  of  the  panel 
straight  on  both  sides  :  this  is  called  quirked  ogee,  quirked  bead, 
and  flat  panel,  with  square  back. 

Fig.  6  diflprs  from  the  last  only  in  having  the  bead  raised  above 
the  lower  part  of  the  ogee  and  a  fillet.  This  is  therefore  deno- 
minated quirked  ogee,  cocked  bead,  and  flat  panel,  with  square 
back. 


JOINERY. 


131 


PLATE  XVJL 

Mouldings  for  Doors,  S^c, 

Fig.  1  is  denominated  cove,  cocked  bead,  and  flat  panel,  with 
square  back. 

Fig.  2  is  denominated  quirked  ovolo,  bead,  fillet,  and  raised 
panel  on  front,  with  square  back.  The  rising  of  the  panel  gives 
strength  to  the  door,  and  on  this  account  they  are  often  employed 
in  street  doors,  though  the  fashion  at  present  is  discontinued  in  the 
inside  of  building. 

Fig.  3  the  framing  is  the  same  as  the  last,  but  the  panel  is 
raised  in  front,  and  has  an  ovolo  on  the  rising.  This  is  therefore 
denominated  quirked  ovolo,  bead,  and  raised  panel,  with  ovolo 
on  the  rising  on  front  of  door,  with  square  back. 

Fig.  4  is  denominated  quirked  ogee,  raised  panel,  ovolo,  and 
fillet  on  the  rising  and  astragal  on  the  flat  of  panel  in  front  and 
square  back. 

Note.  The  raised  side  of  the  panel  is  always  turned  towards 
the  street. 

Fig.  5  is  denominated  quirked  ovolo,  bead,  fillet,  and  flat  pa- 
nel,  on  both  sides ;  doors  of  this  description  are  used  between 
rooms,  or  between  passages  and  rooms,  where  the  door  is  equally 
exposed  on  both  sides.  When  the  panels  are  flat  on  both  sides, 
or  simply  chamfered  on  one  side  and  flat  on  the  other,  and  the 
framing  of  the  door  moulded  on  the  side  which  has  the  flat  pa- 
nels ;  such  doors  are  employed  in  rooms  where  one  side  only  is 
exposed,  and  the  other  never  but  when  opened,  being  turned 
towards  a  cupboard  or  dark  closet. 


132 


JOINERY. 


PLATE  XVIII. 

Mouldings  for  Doors  ^  ^c. 

Fig.  1  is  denominated  bead,  but,  and  square,  or  more  fully  be^d 
and  but,  front  and  square  back.  In  bead  and  but  work,  the  bead 
is  always  struck  on  the  outer  arris  of  the  top  or  flat  of  the  pane 
in  the  direction  of  the  grain. 

Fig  2  is  denominated  bead  and  flush  front  and  quirked  ogee, 
raised  panel,  with  ovolo  on  the  rising,  grooved  on  flat  of  panel, 
on  back.  Bead  and  flush,  and  bead  and  but  work  are  always 
used  where  strength  is  required.  The  mouldings  on  the  inside 
are  made  to  correspond  with  the  other  passage  or  hall  doors. 

Fig.  3  is  a  collection  or  series  of  mouldings  the  same  on  both 
sides,  and  project  in  part  without  the  framing  on  each  side ;  the 
mouldings  are  laid  in  after  the  door  is  framed  square  and  put 
together.  If  braded  through  the  sides  of  the  quirks,  the  heads 
will  be  entirely  concealed ;  but  observe,  that  the  position  of  the 
brads  must  not  be  directed  towards  the  panels,  but  into  the  solid 
of  the  framing.  The  mouldings  of  doors  which  thus  project  are 
termed  belection  mouldings ;  belection  moulded  work  is  chiefly 
employed  in  superior  buildings. 

Fig.  4  another  form  of  a  belection  mouldino^. 

The  following  is  a  geometrical  description  of  reeded  mouldings, 
sash  bars,  and  the  manner  of  springing  mouldings. 

Fig.  5  to  inscribe  a  circle  in  a  given  sector  A  B  C  of  a  circle, 
bisect  the  angle  B  A  C  by  G  A ;  produce  the  sides  A  B,  AC,  to 
D  and  E,  and  A  G  to  meet  the  arc  in  F,  draw  D  E  perpendicular 
to  A  F,  bisect  the  angle  D  E  A  of  the  triangle  A  D  E  by  E  G, 
and  G  is  the  centre  of  the  inscribed  circle,  and  G  F  the  radius. 

Fig.  6  a  reeded  staff,  the  reeds  described  as  in  Fig.  5 


JOINERV 


133 


PLATE  XIX. 

Mouldings  for  Sasltes  and  Cornices. 

Fig.  1  simple  astragal  or  half  round  bar  for  sashes. 

Fig.  2  quirked  astragal  bar. 

Fig.  3  quirked  Gothic  bar. 

Fig.  4  another  form  of  a  Gothic  bar. 

Fig.  5  double  ogee  bar:  this  and  the  preceding  forms  are 
easily  kept  clean. 

Fig.  6  qiiirked  astragal  and  hollow:  bars  of  this  structure  have 
been  long  in  use. 

Fig.  7  double  reeded  bar. 

Fig.  8  triple  reeded  bar. 

Fig.  9  base  moulding  of  a  room  with  part  of  the  skirting. 

When  the  base  mouldings  are  very  large,  they  ought  to  be  sprung 
as  in  this  diagram.  A  the  base  moulding,  B  part  of  the  plmth.  In 
order  to  know  what  thickness  it  would  require  a  board  to  be  of,  to 
get  out  a  moulding  upon  the  spring;  the  best  method  is  to  draw 
the  moulding  out  to  the  full  size,  then  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the 
general  line  of  the  moulding,  so  as  to  make  it  equally  strong 
throughout  its  breadth,  and  also  of  sufficient  strength  for  its  in- 
tended  purpose. 

Fig.  10  a  cornice.  The  part  A  forming  the  corona,  is  got  out 
of  a  plank.  B  is  a  bracket,  C  the  moulding  on  the  front  spring, 
D  a  cover  board  forming  the  upper  fillet,  E  a  moulding  sprung 
below  the  corona,  F  a  bracket. 


§  71.  Defnitions. 

A  piece  of  stuff  is  said  to  be  wrought  when  it  is  planed  on  one 
or  more  sides,  so  as  to  make  a  complete  finish  as  far  as  required 
by  a  plane  ;  hence  if  it  is  only  planed  with  the  jack  plane,  and  no 
farther  operation  of  any  other  plane  required,  in  this  case  it  is 
l2 


134 


JOINERY. 


said  to  be  wrought ;  and  if  the  stuff  requires  to  be  made  straighter 
with  the  trying  plane,  the  stuff  is  still  said  to  be  wrought. 

The  operation  of  planing  the  first  side  of  a  board  or  piece  of 
stuff  straight,  is  called  facing,  the  side  so  done  is  called  the  face, 
and  the  board  itself  is  said  to  be  faced-up. 

The  operation  of  planing  the  edge  of  a  board  straight,  is  called 
shooting,  and  the  edge  is  said  to  be  shot. 

When  two  adjoining  surfaces  of  a  piece  of  stuff  are  planed  so 
as  to  form  a  right  angle,  the  piece  of  stuff  is  said  to  be  squared. 

When  two  adjoining  surfaces  of  a  piece  of  stuff  are  planed  so 
as  to  form  an  acute  or  obtuse  angle  by  the  inclination  of  these 
surfaces,  this  piece  of  stuff  is  said  to  be  bevelled ;  and  if  one 
surface  is  narrower  than  the  other,  the  narrower  surface  becomes 
the  edge,  the  edge  is  then  said  to  be  bevelled ;  but  this  is  only 
meant  in  reference  to  the  face,  as  the  expression  could  have  no 
meaning,  except  in  the  relation  of  the  adjoining  surfaces.  The 
same  is  also  applied  to  a  piece  of  wood  that  has  been  squared, 
the  edge  is  said  to  be  squared,  instead  of  the  adjoining  surfaces 
said  to  be  squared. 

When  a  line  has  been  drawn  on  the  face  or  edge  of  a  piece  of 
stuff  parallel  to  the  arris  or  line  of  concourse  of  the  two  surfaces 
that  are  planed,  that  surface  is  said  to  be  gauged,  and  is  generally 
done  by  means  of  the  implement  or  tool  called  a  gauge. 

When  the  stuff  is  planed  on  one,  two,  three,  or  all  the  four 
sides,  as  may  be  required,  then  the  stuff  is  said  to  be  tried  up  ;  the 
term  try-up  is  sometimes  applied  to  facing,  but  in  what  follows, 
the  term  facing,  is  only  applied  to  the  side  first  wrought. 


§  72.  To  make  a  Straight  Edge, 

• 

Fasten  two  boards  together  in  the  checks  of  the  bench  screw, 
at  one  end,  and  support  the  other  end  with  the  side  pin,  inserted 
in  one  of  the  holes  of  the  side  board ;  plane  the  upper  edges  as 
straight  as  the  eye  can  observe :  unscrew  the  check  board,  place 


JOINERY.  135 

one  u^^t4  t^^^  \he  other,  with  the  planed  edges  together,  and  the 
faces  of  ih^  li^\-'lk!  in  a  straight  hne  with  each  other ;  then  if 
the  edges  coi.icide,  ■  hv?.y  are  straight,  but  if  not,  they  will  be  alike 
round  or  alike  holbv" ;  tho  prominent  parts  must  be  marked,  and 
the  operation  repeated  us  often  as  may  be  found  necessary.  In 
shooting  the  edges,  the  sro'v3gh  is  first  taken  off  with  the  jack  plane: 
in  convex  places,  stand  siiJl,  drawing  and  pushing  the  plane  to 
and  from  you  by  the  motion  of  ihe  arms,  until  the  prominent  part 
or  parts  have  been  reduced  by  lepeated  shavings,  which  will  be 
taken  off  the  wood,  every  time  the  plane  is  driven  forwards ;  then 
having  got  the  edges  very  nearly  straight,  you  may  take  one  or 
two  shavings  by  going  the  whole  ierigth  from  the  hind  to  the  fore 
end,  without  drawing  back  the  plane;  then  with  the  trying  or  long 
plane  walk  from  end  to  end  as  before,  pushing  the  plane  con- 
tinually forward,  and  if  it  take  a  shaving  of  unequal  breadth,  or 
unequal  thickness,  or  both,  repeat  the  operation  again  until  this  is 
not  the  case.  If  the  edges  are  very  long,  the  same  operation 
must  be  performed  with  the  jointer,  viz.  by  pushing  it  forward 
from  end  to  end.  Then,  when  two  edges  coincide  in  working 
them  together  in  this  manner,  you  will  have  two  straight  edg^s. 
Straight  edges  are  easier  made  when  the  board  has  been  previously 
faced.  Here  the  workman  must  keep  the  definition  of  a  straight 
Une  continually  in  view. 


§73.  To  face  a  Piece  of  Stuff, 

Here  the  workman  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  definition  of  a 
straight  surface,  viz.  it  is  that  which  will  every  where  coincide  with 
a  straight  line  :  apply  the  edges  of  a  pair  of  winding  sticks,  one 
to  the  farther  end  of  the  surface,  and  the  other  to  the  nearer;  di- 
rect:rg  the  eye*  in  any  straight  line  coinciding  with  the  upper 
edges :  then  if  by  keeping  the  eye  at  the  same  point,  and  if  straight 

*  That  is,  shutting  one  eye  and  chserving  with  the  other.  This  depends  on  vision 
being  always  performed  in  straight  lines. 


136 


JOINERY. 


lines  can  be  directed  from  it  to  all  other  points  in  the  upper  edge 
of  each  winding  stick,  then  the  ends  of  the  surface  are  in  a  plane. 
Draw  a  line  by  the  edge  of  each  winding  stick  on  the  surface, 
and  if  the  surface  will  every  where  coincide  with  a  straight  line, 
then  it  is  already  straight,  there  will  be  very  little  to  do  but  plane 
the  rough  away.  But  if  on  applying  the  edges  of  the  winding 
sticks  to  the  surface,  a  straight  line  can  only  be  directed  from  the 
eye  to  one  point  in  the  upper  edge  of  each  winding  stick,  then 
the  surface  is  said  to  wind,  and  is  called  a  winding  surface ;  in 
such  a  case,  tnere  will  always  be  two  corners  of  the  surface  higher 
than  the  other  two :  then  with  the  jack  plane,  reduce  the  surface 
at  the  corners,  until  both  edges  of  the  winding  sticks  are  in  the 
same  plane ;  draw  a  line  by  the  edge  of  each  winding  stick  on 
the  surface  as  before,  then  with  the  jack  plane  reduce  all  the 
prominent  parts  between  the  lines :  having  obtained  a  surface 
very  nearly  straight  by  one  or  several  trials  by  the  jack  plane, 
plane  off  the  ridges  which  the  jack  plane  has  left,  with  the  trying 
plane,  and  apply  the  winding  sticks  in  the  same  manner,  in  order 
to  be  certain  whether  you  are  keeping  the  surface  true  or  not. 


§  74.  To  shoot  the  Edge  of  a  Board, 

First  rough  plane  the  side  o-f  the  board  with  the  jack  plane,  or 
plane  the  rough  off  the  side  of  the  board  next  to  the  joint.  Then 
setting  the  sides  of  the  board  in  a  vertical  position,  and  placing  it 
in  the  bench  screw,  proceed  in  the  same  manner  in  the  operation  of 
planing,  as  in  making  a  straight  edge ;  except  that  there  is  only  one 
edge  planed  at  a  time  in  shooting.  If  the  joint  is  not  very  long, 
it  is  brouglit  to  a  straight  by  the  eye :  but  if  very  long,  a  straight 
edge  must  be  used  ;  in  shooting  the  edge,  the  hand  must  be  carried 
regular  from  end  to  end. 


JOINERY.  137 
§  75.   To  join  two  Boards  together. 

Shoot  the  edge  of  each  board  first,  or  if  they  are  very  thin,  they 
may  be  shot  together :  apply  each  of  the  edges  together,  then  if 
they  are  quite  close,  both  face  and  back  of  the  board,  and  the  faces 
of  the  two  boards  straight  with  each  other,  they  may  be  glued 
together ;  but  if  not,  the  operation  must  be  repeated  until  there  is 
no  space  left  on  either  side,  and  the  sides  quite  straight  with  each 
other  :  when  properly  shot,  spread  the  edges  over  with  strong 
thin  glue,  of  a  proper  consistence,  made  very  hot,  one  of  the 
boards  being  fixed,  the  faces  adjoining  each  other,  and  the  edges 
straight ;  then  turn  the  loose  board  upon  the  fixed  board,  applying 
fhe  edges  that  are  shot  together,  rub  the  upper  board  backwards 
and  forwards  until  the  two  begin  to  stick  fast,  and  the  glue  mostly 
rubbed  out;  tho  faces  must  be  brought  as  nearly  straight  as 
possible. 


§  76.  To  join  any  number  of  Boards,  edge  to  edge,  with  glue,  so  as 
to  form  one  Board. 

First  shoot  the  edges  of  two  boards,  so  as  to  bring  them  to  a 
joint,  mark  the  faces  of  these  boards  next  to  the  joint,  then  shoot 
the  other  edge  of  one  of  the  boards,  and  another  edge  of  another 
board,  and  bring  these  to  a  joint  also,  marking  them  as  before, 
proceed  in  this  manner  until  as  many  boards  have  been  jointed  as 
make  the  entire  breadth  required,  always  numbering  the  boards 
in  regular  order.  Glue  the  first  two  together ;  when  suflSciently 
dry,  glue  the  second  and  third  board,  and  so  on  till  all  the  joints 
are  glued. 

If  the  boards  or  planks  be  very  long,  the  edges  which  are  to  do 
united,  will  require  to  be  warmed  before  a  fire.  And  in  order  to 
keep  the  faces  fair  with  each  other,  three  men  will  be  necessary 
also  in  helping  to  rub,  one  to  guide  the  middle,  and  one  to  guide 
each  end. 

R 


138 


JOINERY. 


§  77.   To  square  and  try-up  a  Piece  of  StuJ. 

First  face  the  side  of  the  stuff,  apply  the  edge  of  the  stock  of  a 
square  to  this  side,  and  the  edge  of  the  tongue  to  the  other  side 
or  edge  to  be  planed,  keeping  the  stock  of  the  square  at  right 
angles  to  the  arris ;  try  the  square  in  the  same  manner  in  several 
places,  then  plane  the  side  or  edge  of  the  stufl',  until  the  inner  edge 
of  the  tongue  coincide  with  one  side  or  edge  of  the  stuff,  while 
the  inner  edge  of  the  stock  coincides  with  the  face. 

§  78.   To  try -up  a  Piece  of  Stuff  all  round* 

When  the  two  sides  of  the  face  and  edge  have  been  squared, 
gauge  the  stuff  to  its  thickness  by  the  gauge,  then  plane  the  other 
Side  to  the  gauge  line  opposite  to  the  face,  but  observe  that  it 
must  be  planed  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  blade  of  the  square, 
while  the  stock  coincides  with  the  other  side,  on  which  the  gauge 
line  was  drawn,  both  handle  and  tongue  being  at  the  same  time  at 
right  angles  to  the  arris.  Having  now  finished  three  sides,  set 
the  gauge  to  the  intended  breadth,  then  apply  the  guide  of  the 
head  of  the  gauge  upon  the  edge  or  side  that  is  wrought,  and 
which  adjoins  the  other  two  wrought  sides,  and  the  stem  and  tooth 
upon  the  side  to  be  gauged,  draw  a  line  upon  that  side,  turn  the 
stuff  over  to  the  other  side,  and  place  the  head  upon  the  same  side 
as  before,  but  not  upon  the  same  edge,  and  the  tooth  end  of  the 
stem  upon  the  side  of  the  wood  ;  draw  a  line  upon  this  side.  In 
gauging,  you  must  press  the  head  of  the  gauge  pretty  hard  against 
the  surface  of  the  stuff  on  which  it  rests,  otherwise  the  grain  of 
the  wood  will  be  liable  to  draw  the  tooth  of  the  gauge  out  of  its 
straight  lined  course ;  then  by  working  the  wood  between  the 
gauge  lines  straight  across,  the  piece  of  stuff  will  be  completely 
tried-up,  and  this  last  side  will  be  planed  up  without  the  use  of 
the  square  :  and,  indeed,  the  third  side  might  also  have  been  done 
when  the  rough  edge,  whence  the  gauge  line  was  drawn,  is  pretty 
near  the  square. 


JOLNERY 


139 


§  79.   To  rebate  a  Piece  of  Stuff, 

First,  when  the  rebate  is  to  b.e  made  on  the  arris  next  to  you, 
the  stuff  must  be  first  tried-up  on  two  sides ;  if  the  rebate  is  not 
very  large,  set  the  guide  of  the  fence  of  the  moving  filHster  to  be 
within  the  distance  of  the  horizontal  breadth  of  tiie  intended  re- 
bate ;  and  screw  the  stop,  so  that  the  guide  may  be  somethinor 
less  than  the  vertical  depth  of  the  rebate  from  the  sole  of  the 
plane ;  set  the  iron  so  as  to  be  sufficiently  rank,  and  to  project 
equally  below  the  sole  of  the  plane ;  make  the  left  hand  point  of 
the  cutting  edge  flush  with  the  left  hand  side  of  the  plane :  the 
tooth  should  be  a  small  matter  without  the  ri^ht  hand  side  of  the 
plane.  Proceed  now  to  gauge  the  horizontal  and  vei>tical  dimen- 
sions  of  the  rebate  :  begin  your  work  at  the  fore  end  of  the  stuff; 
the  plane  being  placed  before  you,  lay  your  right  hand  partly 
on  the  top  hind  end  of  the  plane,  your  fore  fingers  upon  the  left 
side,  and  your  thumb  upon  the  right,  the  middle  part  of  the  palm 
of  the  hand  resting  upon  the  round  of  the  plane  between  the  top 
and  the  end  ;  lay  the  thumb  of  your  left  hand  over  tlie  top  of  the 
fore  end  of  the  plane,  bending  the  thumb  downwards  upon 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  plane,  while  the  upper  division  of  the 
fore-finger,  and  the  one  next  to  it  goes  obliquely  on  the  left  side 
of  the  plane,  and  then  bends  with  the  same  obliquity  to  comply 
with  the  fore  end  of  the  plane ;  the  two  remaining  fingers  are 
turned  inwards  :  push  the  plane  forward  without  moving  your  feet, 
and  a  shaving  will  be  discharged  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  re- 
bate ;  draw  the  plane  towards  you  again  to  the  place  you  pushed 
it  from,  and  repeat  the  operation :  proceed  in  this  manner  until 
you  have  gone  very  near  the  depth  of  the  rebate ;  move  a  step 
backward,  and  proceed  as  before ;  go  on  by  several  successive 
steps,  operating  at  each  one  as  at  first,  until  you  get  to  the  end ; 
then  you  may  take,  a  shaving  or  two  the  whole  length,  or  take 
down  any  protuberant  parts. 

In  holding  the  fillister,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  sides 
vertical,  and  consequently  the  sole  level:  then  clean  out  the  hot- 


i40 


JOINERY. 


torn  and  side  of  the  rebate  with  the  skevv-faced  rebate  plane,  that 
is,  plane  the  bottom  and  side  smooth,  until  you  come  close  to  the 
gauge  lines  :  for  this  purpose  the  iron  must  be  set  very  fine,  and 
equally  prominent  throughout  the  breadth  of  the  sole. 

If  your  rebate  exceeds  in  breadth  the  distance  which  the  guide 
of  the  fence  can  be  set  from  the  right  side  of  the  plane,  you  may 
make  a  narrow  rebate  on  the  side  next  to  you,  and  set  the  plow  to 
^he  full  breadth,  and  the  stop  of  the  plow  to  the  depth  :  make  a 
groove  next  to  the  gauge  Ime  ;  then  with  the  firmer  chisel,  cut  off 
me  wood  between  the  groove  and  the  rebate,  level  with  the  bot- 
tom ;  or  should  the  rebate  be  very  wide,  you  may  make  several 
mtermediate  grooves,  leaving  the  wood  between  every  two  adja- 
cent  grooves  of  less  breadth  than  the  firmer  chisel,  so  as  to  be 
easily  cut  out ;  having  the  rebate  roughed  out,  you  may  make  the 
bottom  a  little  smoother  with  the  paring  chisel ;  then  with  a  com- 
mon rebate  plane,  about  an  inch  broad  in  the  sole,  plane  the  side 
of  the  bottom  next  to  the  vertical  side,  and  with  the  jack  plane 
take  off  the  irregularities  of  the  wood  left  by  the  chisel :  smooth 
tlTie  farther  side  of  the  bottom  of  the  rebate  with  the  skew  rebate 
piane,  as  also  the  vertical  side  :  with  the  trying  plane  smooth  the 
remaining  part  next  to  you  until  the  rebate  is  at  its  full  depth.  If 
any  thing  remain  in  the  internal  angle,  it  may  be  cut  away  with 
a  fine  set  paring  chisel ;  but  this  will  hardly  be  necessary  when 
the  tools  are  in  good  order. 

When  the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  rebate  is  not  greater  than 
the  depth  which  the  plow  can  be  set  to  work,  the  most  expeditious 
method  of  making  a  rebate,  is  by  grooving  it  within  the  gauge 
ines  on  each  side  of  the  arris,  and  so  taking  the  piece  out  whhout 
he  use  of  the  chisel :  then  proceed  to  work  the  bottom  and  side 
of  the  groove  as  before.  By  these  means  you  have  the  several 
methods  of  rebating,  when  the  rebate  is  made  on  the  left  edge  of 
the  stuff :  but  if  the  rebate  is  formed  from  the  right  hand  arris,  it 
must  be  planed  on  two  sides,  or  on  one  side,  and  an  edge  as  be- 
fore ;  place  the  stuff  so  that  the  arris  of  the  two  planed  sides  may 
be  next  to  you.    Set  the  sash  fillister  to  the  whole  breadth  of  *he 


JOINERY. 


141 


btuff  that  is  to  be  left  standing,  and  the  stop  to  the  depth,  then  you 
may  proceed  to  rebate  as  before. 


§  80.  To  relate  across  the  Grain, 

Nail  a  straight  slip  across  the  piece  to  be  rebated,  so  that  the 
straight  edge  may  fall  upon  the  line  which  the  vertical  side  of  the 
rebate  makes  upon  the  top  of  the  stuff,  keeping  the  breadth  of  the 
slip  entirely  to  one  side  of  the  rebate  ;  then  having  set  the  stop  of 
the  dado  grooving  plane  to  the  depth  of  the  rebate,  holding  the 
plane  vertically,  run  a  groove  across  the  wood,  repeat  the  same 
operation  in  one  or  more  places  in  the  breadth  of  the  rebate, 
leaving  each  interstice  or  standing-up  part  something  less  than 
the  breadth  of  the  firmer  chisel:  then  with  that  chisel  cut  away 
these  parts  between  every  two  grooves,  but  be  careful  in  doing 
this  that  you  do  not  tear  the  wood  up  ;  pare  the  bottom  pretty 
smooth,  or  after  having  cut  the  rough  away  with  the  chisel,  take 
a  rebating  plane  with  the  iron  set  rather  rank,  and  work  the  pro- 
minent  parts  down  to  the  aforesaid  grooves  nearly.  Lastly,  with 
a  fine  set  screwed  rebating  plane,  smooth  the  bottom  next  to  the 
vertical  side  of  the  rebate  ;  the  other  parts  of  the  bottom  may  be 
taken  completely  down  with  a  fine  set  smoothing  plane :  in  this 
manner  you  may  make  a  tenon  of  any  breadth. 


§  81 .  To  frame  two  Pieces  of  Stuff  togetlier. 

For  this  purpose  it  will  be  necessary  to  face-up,  and  square 
each  of  the  pieces  at  least  on  two  sides  ;  the  thickness  of  the 
tenon  or  width  of  the  mortise  ought  not  to  exceed  in  general  one- 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff ;  but  this  will  in  some  cases  de- 
pend upon  the  work,  and  whether  the  materials  that  are  to  be 
framed  together  be  of  the  same  kind  or  not,  and  consequently  the 


142 


JOINERY. 


})roportion  greater  or  less  according  as  the  piece  on  which  the 
tenon  is  cut,  is  of  a  stronger  or  weaker  texture  than  the  piece 
which  is  to  receive  it.  If  the  two  pieces  are  to  be  joined  at  a 
right' angle,  and  the  piece  which  has  the  mortise  project  only  on 
one  side  of  the  piece  which  has  the  tenon,  you  must  then  set  the 
mortise  a  little  farther  in  than  the  breadth  of  the  piece  which  has 
the  tenon,  in  order  to  prevent  the  piece  at  the  end  of  tlie  tenon 
from  splitting ;  mark  the  length  of  your  tenon  a  little  more  than 
the  breadth  of  the  mortised  piece  ;  strike  a  square  line  through  the 
mark;  then  at  the  place  where  the  hne  meets  the  arris,  strike 
another  square  line  :  if  the  work  is  to  be  very  nicely  put  together, 
this  will  be  best  done  with  the  drawing  knife:  square  two  pencil 
lines  on  the  two  sides  of  the  mortised  piece  opposite  to,  or  in  the 
same  straight  line  with,  the  inside  of  the  tenoned  piece ;  strike 
other  two  square  pencil  lines  upon  the  sides  of  the  mortised  piece 
next  to  the  end  opposite  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  tenoned  piece,  or 
in  the  same  straight  line  with  it,  and  thus  the  distance  between 
each  pair  of  square  lines  upon  each  of  the  sides,  will  be  equal  to 
the  breadth  of  the  tenoned  piece  ;  but  this  distance  would  be  too 
long  for  the  mortise,  as  when  finished,  one  piece  of  stuff  does  not 
pass  by  the  breadth  of  the  other ;  therefore  if  the  mortise  came 
close  to  the  end,  there  would  be  nothing  to  resist  and  keep  the 
tenon  in  its  place  :  for  this  reason,  the  mortise  must  never  be  cut 
out  to  the  extremity,  but  always  at  least  one  fourth  of  the  whole 
breadth  farther  in ;  if  the  insides  of  the  pieces  are  intended  to  be 
entirely  square,  you  may  make  the  length  of  the  mortise  from  the 
inside  pencil  lines  equal  to,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  breadth  of 
the  tenoned  piece.  Set  the  distance  of  the  teeth  of  the  mortise 
gauge  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  or  breadth  of  the  mor- 
tise,  and  the  distance  from,  and  of  the  nearer  tooth  to  the  head, 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  cheek  of  the  mortise  or  shoulder  of 
the  tenon,  then  gauge  both  pieces  on  the  inner  edges  from  the 
face,  and  also  on  the  outer  edges  from  the  same  face,  return  the 
pencil  lines  upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  mortised  piece.  Lay  the 
piece  to  be  mortised  upon  the  mortise  stool,  with  the  side  upper- 


JOINERY. 


143 


most  which  is  to  be  the  inside,  and  mortise  half  through:  turn  the 
other  edge  uppermost,  and  mortise  the  other  half;  the  reason  of 
mortising  one  half  at  a  time  is  obvious,  when  it  is  considered,  that 
the  holding  of  the  mortise  chisel  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  is 
all  guess  work;  the  mortise  would  therefore  be  liable  to  go  not 
only  obliquely,  but  uneven  :  the  length  of  the  mortise  must  be  a 
little  more  on  the  outer  edge  than  on  the  inner,  as  the  tenon  when 
it  comes  to  be  stationed  to  its  place,  is  secured  by  wedges  and 
glue  :  the  ends  of  the  piortise  must  be  quite  straight,  though  in- 
clining towards  each  other  next  to  the  inside  or  shoulder  of  the 
tenon  ;  the  sides  of  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise  must  be  cut  smooth 
with  the  paring  chisel:  and  for  the  purpose  of  having  the  width  of 
the  mortise,  when  finished,  the  exact  thickness  of  the  tenon,  the 
mortise  chisel  ought  to  be  rather  of  less  thickness  than  that  of  the 
tenon. 

To  form  the  tenon :  cut  the  shoulders  in  with  the  drawing  knife ; 
place  the  side  hooks  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  bench,  the 
knob  or  catch  of  each  against  the  side  board  ;  place  the  tenoned 
piece  upon  the  side  hooks,  and  against  the  other  knobs  on  the 
bench,  and  with  the  tenon  saw  cut  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  on 
one  side,  and  turn  the  other  side  up  arid  cut  the  other  shoulder ; 
take  the  piece  and  fix  it  in  the  bench  screw,  and  with  a  hand  saw 
cut  off  the  two  outside  pieces  called  the  tenon  cheeks  from  the 
sides  of  the  tenon,  keeping  the  stufT  entire  between  the  gauge 
lines  ;  and  if  the  saw  is  in  good  order,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
do  any  more  to  the  sides;  but  if  the  saw  has  been  led  away  from 
the  draughts,  cither  from  carelessness  or  from  its  beng  in  bad  or- 
der, recourse  must  be  had  to  the  paring  chisel,  so  as  to  take  away 
the  superfluous  wood  to  the  gauge  lines,  and  lastly  to  the  skew- 
faced  rebate  plane.  Having  finished  the  sides  of  the  tenon,  it 
must  be  reduced  from  the  outer  edge  to  a  breadth  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  mortise,  this  reduction  is  called  haunching,  but  it  is 
better  to  have  a  little  piece  to  project  beyond  the  shoulder,  and 
then  to  cut  a  shallow  mortise  of  the  same  depth  close  to  the  far 


144 


JOINERY. 


ther  end  of  the  mortise  piece ;  this  little  tenon  is  called  slump 
haunchings.  Insert  the  tenon  in  a  mortise,  driving  the  end  of  the 
tenoned  piece  wjtfh  a  mallet,  until  the  shoulder  comes  home  to  the 
face  of  the  mortise  :  then  if  your  work  has  been  truly  tried-up  and 
set  out,  both  shoulders  will  be  quite  close  to  the  inner  edge  of  the 
mortised  piece ;  having  thus  finished  the  mortise  and  tenon,  you 
may  take  it  out  and  glue  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  and  inner  edge 
of  the  mortise  with  very  hot  glue  ;  then  drive  the  tenoned  piece 
home  ;  if  very  stiff,  it  will  be  necessary  to. use  a  cramp  ;  however, 
the  use  of  this  will  be  better  understood  in  making  a  complete 
frame. 

§  82.  Boarding  Floors, 

Boarded  floors  are  those  covered  with  boards.  The  operation  of 
boarding  floors  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  windows  are  in, 
and  the  plaster  dry.  The  preparation  of  the  boards  for  this  pur- 
pose  is  as  follows: 

They  should  first  be  planed  on  their  best  face,  and  set  out  to 
season  till  the  natural  sap  is  quite  exhausted ;  they  may  then  be 

ned  smooth,  shot  and  squared  upon  one  edge  :  the  opposite 
edges  are  brought  to  a  breadth,  by  drawing  a  line  on  the  face  pa- 
rallel  to  the  other  edge,  with  a  flooring  gauge;  they  are  then 
gauged  to  a  thickness  with  a  common  gauge,  and  rebated  down 
on  the  back  to  the  lines  drawn  by  the  gauge. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  try  the  joists,  whether  they  be 
level  or  not :  if  they  are  found  to  be  depressed  in  the  middle,  they 
must  be  furred  up,  and  if  found  to  protuberant  must  be  reduced 
by  the  adze.    The  former  is  more  generally  the  case. 

The  boards  employed  in  flooring  are  either  battens  or  deals  of 
greater  breadth.  The  quality  of  battens  are  divided  into  three 
kinds;  the  best  is  that  free  of  knots,  shakes,  sap-wood,  or  cross, 
grained  stuff*,  and  well  matched,  that  is,  selected  with  the  greatest 
care;  the  second  best  is  that  in  which  only  small,  but  sound  knots 


JOINERY. 


145 


are  permitted,  and  free  of  sliakes  and  sap-wood ;  the  most  common 
kind  is  that  which  is  left,  after  taking  away  the  best  and  second 
best. 

With  regard  to  the  joints  of  flooring  boardll^they  are  either 
quite  square,  plowed  and  tongued,  rebated,  or  doweled  ;  in  fixing 
them  they  are  nailed  either  upon  one  or  both  edges ;  they  are  al- 
ways  necessarily  nailed  on  both  edges,  when  the  joints  are  plain 
or  square  without  dowels.  When  they  are  doweled,  they  may  be 
nailed  on  one  or  both  edges ;  but  in  the  best  doweled  work,  the 
outer  edge  only  is  nailed,  by  driving  the  brad  obliquely  through 
that  edge  without  piercing  the  surface  of  the  board  ;  so  that  the 
surface  of  the  floor,  when  cleaned  off*,  appears  without  blemish. 

In  laying  boarded  floors,  the  boards  are  sometimes  laid  one 
after  another;  or  otherwise,  one  is  first  laid,  then  the  fourth, 
leaving  an  interval  somewhat  less  than  the  breadth  of  the  seccnd 
and  third  together:  the  two  intermediate  boards  are  next  laid  in 
their  places,  with  one  edge  upon  the  edge  of  the  first  board,  and 
the  other  upon  that  of  the  fourth  board  ;  the  two  middle  edges 
renting  upon  each  other,  and  forming  a  ridge  at  the  joint ;  to 
force  down  these  joints,  two  or  more  workmen  jump  upon  the 
ridge  till  they  have  brought  the  under  sides  of  the  boards  close  to 
the  joints,  then  they  are  fixed  in  their  places  with  bracks.  In  this 
last  method,  the  boards  are  said  to  be  folded.  Though  two  boards 
are  here  mentioned,  the  most  common  way  is  to  fold  four  at  a 
time  ;  this  mode  is  only  taken  when  the  boards  are  not  sufficiently 
seasoned,  or  suspected  not  to  be  so.  In  order  to  make  close 
work,  it  is  obvious  that  the  two  edges  forming  the  joint  of  the 
second  and  third  boards,  must  form  angles  with  the  faces,  each 
Jess  than  a  right  angle.  The  seventh  board  is  fixed  as  the  fourth, 
and  the  fifth  and  sixth  inserted  as  the  second  and  third,  and  so  on 
till  the  completion. 

The  headings  are  either  square,  splayed,  or  plowed  and  tongued. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  heading  in  the  length  of  the  floor, 

it  should  always  be  upon  a  joist.    One  heading  should  never  meet 

another. 

Nos.  9  &  10.  .s 


146 


JOINERY. 


Whsn  floors  are  doweled,  it  is  better  to  place  dowels  over  the 
middle  of  the  interjoist,  than  over  the  joists,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  edge  of  one^board  from  passing  that  of  the  other.  When  the 
boards  are  onlyibraded  upon  one  edge,  the  brads  are  most  fre- 
quently conceded,  by  driving  them  slanting  through  the  outer  edge 
of  every  successive  board,  without  piercing  the  upper  surface.  In 
adzing  away  the  under  sides  of  the  boards  opposite  to  the  joists, 
m  order  to  equalize  their  thickness,  the  greatest  care  should  be 
taken  to  chip  them  straight,  and  exactly  down  to  the  rebates,  as 
the  soundness  of  the  floor  depends  on  this. 


§  83.  Hanging  of  Shutters  to  be  cut. 

Shutters  to  oe  cut  must  first  be  hung  the  whole  length,  and  taken 
down  and  cut ;  but  observe  that  you  do  not  cut  the  joint  by  the 
range  of  the  middle  bar,  but  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  sash 
frame,  for  unless  this  be  done,  the  ends  will  not  all  coincide  when 
folded  together.  In  order  to  hang  shutters  at  the  first  trial,  set  off 
the  margin  from  the  bead  on  both  sides,  then  take  half  the  thickness 
of  the  knuckle  of  the  hinge,  and  prick  it  on  each  side  from  the 
margin,  so  drawn  towards  the  middle  of  the  window,  at  the  places 
of  the  hinges  ;  put  in  brads  at  these  pricks  ;  then  putting  the  shut- 
ter  to  its  place,  screw  it  fast,  and  when  opened  it  will  turn  to  the 
place  intended. 


§  84.  Hanging  of  Doors, 

Doors  should  be  hung  so  as  to  rise  above  the  carpet ;  for  this 
purpose,  the  knuckle  of  the  bottom  hinge  should  be  made  to  pro- 
ject the  whole  pin  beyond  the  surface  of  the  door,  while  the  centre 
of  the  upper  pin  comes  rather  within  the  surface.  To  render  this 
still  more  efl^ectual,  the  floor  is  sometimes  raised  immediately  un- 
der the  door.    A  door  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  in  c 


JOINERY. 


147 


trapezoidal  form,  will  also  have  the  effect  of  clearing  the  floor : 
most  of  the  ancient  doora  were  of  this  figure. 


§  S5.  To  Scribe  one  Piece  of  Board  or  Stuff  to  another. 

When  the  edge  end  or  sidp  of  one  piece  of  stuff  is  fitted  close 
to  the  superficies  of  another,  the  former  is  said  to  be  scribed  to 
the  latter.  Thus  the  skirting  boards  of  a  room  should  be  scribed 
to  the  floor.  In  moulded  framing,  the  moulding  upon  the  rails,  if 
not  quirked,  are  scribed  to  the  styles,  and  muntins  upon  rails. 
To  scribe  the  edge  of  a  board  against  any  uneven  surface :  lay 
the  edge  of  the  board  over  its  place,  with  the  face  in  the  position 
in  which  it  is  to  stand  :  with  a  pair  of  stiff  compasses  opened  to  the 
widest  part,  keeping  one  leg  close  to  the  uneven  surface,  move  or 
draw  the  compasses  forward,  so  that  the  point  of  the  other  leg  may 
mark  a  line  on  the  board,  and  that  the  two  points  may  always  be 
in  a  straight  line  parallel  to  the  straight  line  in  which  the  two 
points  were  at  the  commencement  of  the  motion :  then  cut  away 
the  wood  between  this  line  and  the  bottom  edge,  and  the  one  will 
coincide  with  the  other. 


§86.  Doors. 

Doors  ought  to  be  made  of  clean  good  stuff,  firmly  put  together, 
the  mitres  or  scribings  brought  together  with  the  greatest  exact- 
ness,  and  the  whole  of  their  surfaces  perfectly  smooth  ;  particu- 
larly those  made  for  the  best  apartments  of  good  houses.  In  order 
to  effect  this,  the  whole  of  the  work  ought  to  be  set  out  and  tried- 
up  with  particulai  care  ;  saws  and  all  other  tools  must  be  in  good 
order ;  *  the  mortising,  tenoning,  plowing,  and  sticking  of  the 
mouldings,  ought  to  be  correctly  to  the  gauge  lines  ;  these  being 
strictly  attended  to,  the  work  will  of  necessity,  when  put  together, 
close  with  certainty  ;  but  if  otherwise,  the  workman  must  expect 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  paring  the  different  parts  before  the  work 


148 


JOINERY 


can  be  made  to  appear  in  any  degree  passable ;  this  will  also  oc 
casion  a  want  of  firmness  in  the  work,  particularly  if  the  tenons 
and  mortises  are  obliged  to  be  pared. 

In  bead  and  flush  doors,  the  best  way  is  to  mitre  the  work 
square,  afterwards  put  in  the  panels,  and  smooth  the  whole  off 
together;  then,  marking  the  panels  at  the  parts  of  the  framing  they 
agree  to,  take  the  door  to  pieces,  and  work  the  beads  on  the 
stiles,  rails,  and  muntins. 

If  the  doors  are  double  margin,  that  is,  representing  a  pair  of 
folding  doors,  the  staff  stile  which  imitates  the  meeting  stiles,  must 
be  centred  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  door,  as  well  as  the  hang- 
ing ;  and  lock  stiles,  by  forking  the  ends  into  notches,  cut  in  the 
top  and  bottom  rails. 

§87.  Stairs. 

Stairs  are  one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  considered  in 
a  building,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  situation,  but  as  to  the  de- 
sign and  execution :  the  convenience  of  the  building  depends  on 
the  situation  ;  and  the  elegance  on  the  design  and  execution  of  the 
workmanship.  A  stair-case  ought  to  be  sufficiently  lighted,  and 
the  head-way  uninterrupted.  The  half  paces  and  quarter  paces 
ought  to  be  judiciously  distributed.  The  breadth  of  the  steps  ought 
never  to  be  more  than  fifteen  inches,  nor  less  than  ten ;  the  height 
not  more  than  seven,  nor  less  than  five  ;  there  are  cases,  however, 
which  are  exceptions  to  all  rule.  When  you  have  the  height  of 
the  story  given  in  feet,  and  the  height  of  the  step  in  inches,  you 
may  throw  the  feet  into  inches,  and  divide  the  height  of  the  story 
in  inches  by  the  height  of  the  step  ;  if  there  be  jno  remainder,  or 
if  the  remainder  be  less  than  the  half  of  the  divisor,  the  quotient 
will  show  the  number  of  steps  ;  but  if  the  remainder  be  greater 
than  the  half  of  the  divisor,  you  must  take  one  step  more  than  the 
number  shown  by  the  quotient :  in  the  two  latter  cases,  you  must 
divide  the  height  of  the  story  by  the  number  of  steps,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  give  the  exact  height  of  a  step :  in  the  first  case,  you 


JOINERY. 


149 


Ijave  the  height  of  the  steps  at  once,  and  this  is  the  case  what- 
ever  description  the  stairs  are  of.  In  order  that  people  may  pass 
freely,  the  length  of  the  step  ought  never  to  be  less  than  four 
feet,  though  in  town  houses,  for  want  of  room,  the  going  of  the 
stair  is  frequently  reduced  to  two  feet  and  a  half. 

Stairs  have  several  varieties  of  structure,  which  depends  prin- 
cipally on  the  situation  and  destination  of  the  building.  Geome- 
trical stairs  are  those  which  are  supported  by  one  end  being  fixed 
in  the  wall,  and  every  step  in  the  ascent  having  an  auxiliary 
support  from  that  immediately  below  it,  and  the  lowest  step,  con- 
sequently from  the  floor. 

Bracket  stairs  are  those  that  have  an  opening  or  well,  with 
strings  and  newels,  and  are  supported  by  landings  and  carriages, 
the  brackets  mitering  to  the  ends  of  each  riser,  and  fixed  to  the 
string  board,  which  is  moulded  below  like  an  architrave. 

Dog-legged  stairs  are  those  which  have  no  opening  or  well- 
hole,  the  rail  and  balusters  of  both  the  progressive  and  returning 
flights  fall  in  the  same  vertical  planes,  the  steps  being  fixed  to 
strings,  newels  and  carriages,  and  the  ends  of  the  steps  of  the 
inferior  kind,  terminating  only  upon  the  side  of  the  string,  without 
any  housing. 


§88.  Of  Dog.Iegged  Stairs. 

The  first  thing  is  to  take  the  dimensions  of  the  stair  and  height 

of  the  story,  and  lay  down  a  plan  and  section  upon  a  floor  to  the 

full  size,  representing  all  the  newels,  strings,  and  steps :  by  this, 

the  situation  of  string  boards,  pitching  pieces,  rough  strings,  long 

bearers,  cross  bearers,  and  trimmers  will  become  manifest :  the 

quantity  of  room  allowed  for  the  stairs,  the  situation  of  apertures 

and  passages,  will  determine  whether  there  are  to  be  quarter 

paces,  half  paces,  one  quarter  or  two  quarter  winders.    In  this 

description,  in  order  to  give  all  the  variety  possible,  we  shall 

suppose  the  flight  to  consist  of  two  quarter  winders. 

The  strings,  rails,  and  newels  being  framed  together,  they  musr 
M  2 


150 


JOINERY. 


then  be  fixed,  first  with  temporary  supports,  the  string  board  will 
show  the  situation  of  the  pitching  pieces,  which  must  be  put  up 
next  in  order,  wedging  the  one  end  firmly  into  the  wall,  and  fixing 
the  other  end  to  the  string  board ;  this  being  done,  pitch  up  the 
rough  strings,  and  thus  finish  the  carriage  part  of  the  flyers.  In 
dog-leg  staircases,  the  steps  and  risers  are  seldom  glued  up, 
except  in  cases  of  returned  nosings ;  we  shall  therefore  suppose 
them  to  be  separate  pieces,  and  proceed  to  put  up  the  steps :  place 
the  first  riser  to  its  situation ;  having  fitted  it  down  so  as  to  be 
close  to  the  floor,  the  top  being  brought  to  a  level  at  its  proper 
height,  and  at  the  same  time,  the  face  in  its  right  position,  fix  it 
with  flat  headed  nails,  driving  them  obliquely  through  the  bottom 
part  of  the  riser  into  the  floor,  and  then  nailing  the  end  to  the 
string  board.  Proceed  then  to  cover  the  riser  with  the  first  tread, 
observing  to  notch  out  the  farther  bottom  angle  opposite  the  rough 
strings,  so  as  to  make  it  to  fit  closely  down  to  a  level  on  the  top 
side,  while  the  under  side  beds  firmly  upon  the  rough  strings  at 
the  back  edge,  and  to  the  riser  towards  the  front  edge ;  nail  down 
the  tread  to  the  rough  strings,  driving  the  nails  from  the  seat  or 
place  on  which  the  next  riser  stands,  through  that  edge  of  the 
riser  into  the  rough  strings,  and  then  naiUng  the  end  to  the  string 
board ;  begin  with  the  second  riser,  having  brought  it  to  a  breadth, 
and  fitted  it  close  to  the  top  side  of  the  tread,  so  that  the  back 
edge  of  the  tread  below  it  may  entirely  lap  over  the  back  of  the 
riser,  while  the  front  side  is  in  its  regular  vertical  position  ;  nail 
the  head  to  this  riser,  from  the  under  side,  taking  care  that  the 
nails  do  not  go  through  the  face  of  the  riser,  for  this  would  spoil 
the  beauty  of  the  work. 

Proceed  in  this  manner  as  in  the  last,  with  tread  and  riser  al- 
ternately, until  the  last  parallel  riser.  The  face  of  this  riser  must 
stand  the  whole  projection  of  the  nosing  back  from  the  face  of  the 
newel.  Then  fix  the  top  of  your  first  bearer  for  the  first  winding 
tread,  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  last  parallel  riser,  so  tha^ 
the  farther  edge  of  this  bearer  may  stand  about  an  inch  forward 
from  the  back  of  the  next  succeeding  riser,  for  the  purpose  of 


JOINERY. 


151 


nailing  the  treads  to  the  risers  upwards,  as  was  done  in  the  treads 
and  risers  of  the  flyers,  and  having  fitted  the  end  of  this  bearer 
against  the  back  of  the  riser,  and  nailed  or  screwed  it  fast  thereto; 
this  being  done,  fix  a  cross  bearer,  by  letting  it  in  half  its  thick- 
ness, into  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  top  of  the  riser,  and  into  the 
top  of  the  long  bearer,  so  as  not  to  cut  through  the  horizontal 
breadth  of  the  long  bearer,  nor  through  the  thickness  of  the  riser, 
for  this  would  weaken  the  long  bearer,  and  spoil  the  look  of  the 
riser.  Then  fix  the  riser  to  the  newel,  driving  a  nail  obliquely 
from  the  top  edge  of  the  riser  into  the  newel ;  you  may  then  pro- 
ceed  to  put  down  the  first  winding  tread,  .fitting  it  close  to  the 
newel,  in  the  bird's-mouth  form ;  proceed  with  all  the  succeeding 
risers  and  heads,  always  fixing  in  the  bearers  previously  to  the 
laying  of  each  successive  tread,  until  the  steps  round  the  winding 
part  are  entirely  completed.  Proceed  then  with  the  upper  retro- 
gressive range  of  flyers,  as  those  below.  Fit  the  brackets  into 
the  backs  of  the  risers  and  treads,  so  that  their  edges  may  join 
each  other  upon  the  sides^of  the  rough  strings  to  which  they  are 
fixed  by  nails,  and  thus  the  work  is  completed.  There  are  some 
workmen  who  do  not  mind  the  close  fitting  to  the  riser ;  but  cer- 
tainly  it  makes  the  firmest  work. 

In  the  best  kind  of  dog-leg  stairs,  the  nosings  are  returned,  and 
sometimes  the  risers  mitred  to  brackets,  and  sometimes  mitred 
with  quaker  strings :  in  this  case,  there  is  a  hollow  mitred  round 
the  internal  angle  of  the  under  side  of  the  tread,  and  the  face  ot 
the  riser.  Sometimes  the  string  is  framed  into  the  newel,  and 
notched  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  steps,  and  at  the  other  end  a 
corresponding  notch  board,  then  the  whole  flyjrs  are  put  up  as  a 
step  ladder. 

In  order  to  get  the  lower  part  for  the  turning,  set  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  capping  on  the  return  string  board,  and  where  that 
falls  on  the  newel  below,  is  the  place  of  the  under  limit  ot  the 
turning. 

To  find  the  section  of  the  cap  of  the  newel  for  the  turner,  draw 
a  circle  to  its  intended  diameter,  draw  a  straight  line  from  the 


152 


JOINERY. 


centre  to  imy  point  without  the  circumference^  and  set  half  the 
breadih  of  the  rail  on  each  side  of  that  hne,  and  through  the  point 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  middle  straight  line,  then  the  two  ex- 
treme lines  will  contain  the  breadth  of  the  rail ;  draw  any  radiust 
of  the  circle,  and  set  half  the  breadth  of  the  rail  from  the  centre 
toward  the  circumference,  and  through  the  point  where  this 
breadth  falls,  draw  a  concentric  circle  from  the  point  where  this 
circle  cuts  the  middle  line  of  the  rail;  draw  two  lines  to  the  points 
where  the  breadth  of  the  rail  intersects  the  outer  circle,  and  these 
lines  will  show  the  mitre.  The  section  may  then  be  found  by  ths 
following  method. 

After  having  drawn  the  outline  of  the  cap  and  rail  as  above, 
take  a  small  portion  of  the  rail,  and  cut  it  to  the  mitre  as  drawn, 
then  take  a  block  ot  sufficient  size  for  the  cap,  and  cut  out  the 
internal  mitre  of  the  cap  to  answer  the  external  mitre  of  the  rail: 
place  the  mitre  of  the  rail  into  its  mitre  socket,  and  draw  a  line 
where  the  surface  of  the  piece  meets  the  mitre  ;  draw  the  middle 
line  of  the  rail  upon  both  sides  of  the  bldck,  which  will  bisect  each 
mitre  ;  take  the  distance  from  the  centre  of'the  circle  above  drawn 
to  the  mitre  point,  and  set  it  on  each  side  of  the  block  for  the  cap 
upon  the  middle  line  of  the  breadth  of  the  rail,  from  the  mitre 
point  towards  the  centre  of  the  block,  pricking  the  block  at  the 
other  extremity  of  this  distance ;  then  these  points  will  be  the 
centres  for  turning.  Fit  a  piece  of  wood  to  the  internal  mitre, 
pare  off  the  top  part  of  this  piece  next  to  the  mitre  of  the  cap,  so 
as  to  correspond  to  the  line  drawn  by  the  top  of  the  rail,  then  with 
weak  glue  stick  in  this  piece  to  i's  birth  ;  and  being  so  fitted,  send 
it  to  the  turner. 

In  order  to  eradicate  a  prevalent  false  idea  which  many  work- 
men entertain,  when  the  outer  edge  of  the  mitre  cap  is  turned  so 
as  to  have  the  same  section  as  that  of  the  rail,  they  suppose  this 
to  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  mitring  of  the  above  :  but  from 
a  very  little  inves<igation  of  the  nature  of  the  lines,  they  will  easily 
be  convinced  that  the  sides  of  the  mitre  can  never  be  straight 
surfj^ce;)  cr  planes,  hut  must  be  curved,  when  this  is  the  case. 


JOINERY 


153 


§89.  Bracket  Stairs.  .. 

The  sam  methods  must  be  observed  with  regard  to  taking  tne 
dimensions,  and  laying  down  the  plan  and  section,  as  in  dog-Iegget^ 
stairs.  In  all  stairs  whatever,  after  having  ascertained  the  numoer 
of  steps,  take  a  rod  the  height  of  the  story,  from  the  surface  of  tne 
lower  floor  to  the  surface  of  the  upper  floor:  divide  the  rod  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  there  are  to  be  risers,  then  if  you  have  a  level 
surface  to  work  upon  below  the  stair,  try  each  one  of  the  risers  as 
you  go  on  ;  this  will  prevent  any  excess  or  defect,  which  even  the 
smallest  difference  will  occasion:  for  any  error,  however  small, 
when  multiplied,  becomes  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  even 
the  difference  of  an  inch  in  the  last  riser,  being  too  high  or  too 
low,  will  not  only  have  a  bad  effect  to  the  eye,  but  will  be  apt  to 
confound  persons  not  thinking  of  any  such  irregularity.  In  order  to 
try  the  steps  properly,  by  the  story  rod,  if  you  have  not  a  level  sur- 
face to  work  from,  the  better  way  will  be  to  lay  two  rods  or  boards, 
and  level  their  top  surface  to  that  of  the  floor,  one  of  these  rods 
heing  placed  a  little  within  the  string,  and  the  other  near  or  close 
to  the  wall,  so  as  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  starting  line  of  the 
first  riser,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  parallel  to  the  plan  of  the 
string;  set  off  the  breadth  of  the  steps  upon  these  rods,  and  number 
the  risers  ;  you  may  set  not  only  the  breadth  of  the  flyers,  but  that 
of  the  winders  also.  In  order  to  try  the  story  rod  exactly  to  its 
vertical  situation,  mark  the  same  distances  on  the  ba^-'-^  of  the 
risers  upon  the  top  edges,  as  the  distances  of  the  plan  of  the  string 
board  and  the  rods  are  from  each  other. 

As  the  internal  angle  of  the  steps  is  open  to  the  end,  and  noi 
closed  by  the  string,  as  in  common  dog-legged  stairs,  and  the  neat- 
ness of  workmanship  is  as  much  regarded  as  in  geometrical  stairs- 
the  balusters  must  be  neatly  dove-tailed  into  the  ends  of  the  steps 
two  in  every  step ;  the  face  of  each  front  baluster  must  be  in  a 
straight  surface  with  the  face  of  the  riser;  and  as  all  the  balusters 
must  be  e*[ually  divided,  the  face  of  the  middle  baluster  must  m 
course  stand  in  the  middle  of  the  face  of  the  riser  of  the  preceding 


• 


154 


JOINERY. 


step,  and  the  face  of  the  riser  of  the  succeeding  step.  The  risers 
and  treads  are  all  glued  and  blocked  previously  together ;  and  when 
put  up,  the  under  side  of  the  step  nailed  or  screwed  into  the  under 
edge  of  the  riser,  and  then  rough  bracked  to  the  rough  strings,  as 
in  the  dog-legged  stairs;  the  pitching  pieces  and  rough  strings  being 
similar  to  those.  In  gluing  up  the  steps,  the  best  method  is  to  make 
a  templet,  so  as  to  fit  the  external  angle  of  the  steps  with  the  nosing. 


§  90.  Geojnetrical  Stairs, 

The  steps  of  geometrical  stairs  ought  to  be  constructed  so  as  to 
have  a  very  light  and  clean  appearance  when  put  up :  for  this 
purpose,  and  to  aid  the  principle  of  strength,  the  risers  and  treads 
when  planed  up,  ought  not  to  be  less  than  one  inch  and  an  eighth, 
supposing  the  going  of  the  stair  or  length  of  the  step  to  be  four 
feet ;  and  for  every  six  inches  in  length,  you  may  add  one-eighth 
part  more  ;  the  risers  ought  to  be  dove-tailed  into  the  cover,  and 
when  the  steps  are  put  up,  the  treads  are  screwed  up  from  below, 
to  the  under  edges  of  the  risers ;  the  holes  for  sinking  the  heads 
of  the  screws  ought  to  be  bored  with  a  centre  bit,  and  then  fitted 
closely  in  with  wood  well  matched,  so  as  to  conceal  the  screws 
entirely,  and  to  appear  a9  one  uniform  surface  without  blemish. 
Brackets  are  mitred  to  the  riser,  and  the  nosings  are  continued 
round :  in  this  mode,  however,  there  is  an  apparent  defect,  for  the 
brackets,  instead  of  giving  support,  are  themselves  unsupported, 
depending  on  the  steps,  and  are  of  no  other  use  in  point  of 
strength,  than  merely  tying  the  risers  and  treads  of  the  internal 
angles  of  the  steps  together;  and  from  the  internal  angles  bemg 
hollow,  or  a  re-enterant  right  angle,  except  at  the  ends,  which 
terminate  by  the  wall  at  one  extremity,  and  by  the  brackets  at  the 
other,  there  is  a  want  of  regular  finish.  The  cavetto  or  hollow 
is  carried  all  round  the  front  of  the  slip  returned  at  the  end,  re. 
turned  again  at  the  end  of  the  bracket,  thence  along  the  inside  of 
the  same,  "^.r-d  then  along  the  internal  angle  of  the  back  of  the  riser. 


JOINERY 


155 


This  is  a  slight  imitation  of  the  ancient  mode,  which  was  to 
make  the  steps  solid  all  the  way,  so  as  to  have  every  where 
throughout  its  length  a  bracket-formed  section.  This,  though 
more  natural  in  appearance,  would  be  expensive  and  troublesome 
to  execute,  particularly  when  v/inders  are  used,  but  much  stronger. 

The  best  mode,  however,  of  constructing  geometrical  stairs,  is 
to  put  up  the  strings,  and  to  mitre  the  brackets  to  the  risers  as 
usual,  and  finish  the  soffit  with  lath  and  plaster,  which' will  form 
an  inclined  plane  under  each  flight,  and  a  winding  surface  under 
the  winders.  In  elegant  buildings,  the  soffit  may  be  divided  into 
panels.  If  the  risers  are  got  out  of  two  inch  stuff,  it  will  greatly 
add  to  the  solidity.  The  following  is  the  method  of  drawing  and 
executing  the  scroll  and  other  wreathed  parts  of  the  hand  rail. 


PLATE  XX. 

To  describe  the  scrool  of  a  Hand  Rail, 

From  any  convenient  point,  o,  Fig.  1,  Plate  20,  as  a  centre 
describe  a  circle,  e  f  g  and  describe  the  square  a  b  c  d,  oi 
which  the  centre  is  the  same,  point  o,  and  of  which  the  sides  a,  h, 
b  c,  c  d,  da,  are  each  one  third  of  the  diameter  of  the  circle. 
Divide  each  side  of  the  square  into  six  equal  parts,  (see  also  Fig. 
2,  drawn  at  large,)  and  through  the  points  of  division  draw  lines 
parallel  to  the  sides;  taking  ihe  distance  0,  1,  equal  to  the  side 
of  one  of  the  lesser  squares  ;  the  distance  from  1  to  2,  equal  in 
length  to  twice  the  side  of  one  of  the  little  squares  ;  the  distance 
from  2  to  3,  equal  to  three  times  the  side  of  one  of  the  little 
squares,  and  so  on  increasing  each  line  by  the  side  of  one  of  the 
lesser  squaies,  for  the  other  distances,  from  3  to  4,  and  from  4  to 
5,  and  from  5  to  6,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  distance  from  1 
to  2,  from  2  to  3,  from  3  to  4,  from  4  to  5,  from  5  to  G,  may  be 
respectively  perpendicular  to  the  distances  from  0  to  1,  from  1  to 


156 


JOINERY. 


2,  from  2  to  3,  from  3  to  4,  and  from  4  to  5.  See  the  centres 
constructed  to  a  larger  scale,  Fig,  2. 

Let  the  distance  between  1  and  0  be  produced  to  meet  the  circle 
f.  Then  from  the  centre  1,  with  the  radius  if,  describe  the  quadrant 
ft;  from  the  centre  2,  with  the  distance  2  i,  describe  the  qua- 
drant ih;  from  3,  with  the  distance  3  describe  the  quadrant 
h  I ;  from  4,  with  the  distance  4  Z,  describe  the  quadrant  1  m ; 
from  5,  with  the  distance  5  m,  describe  the  quadrant  m  n,  and 
lastly  from  6,  with  the  radius  6  n,  describe  the  quadrant  n  p. 

In  the  radius  6  p,  make  p  q  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  hand-rail, 
say  two  inches  ;  then,  from  the  centre  6,  describe  the  quadrant  q  r, 
meeting  the  radius  5  n  in  r ;  from  the  centre  5,  with  the  radius  5  r, 
describe  the  arc  r  s,  which  will  complete  the  scroll.  The  shank  of 
the  scroll  is  drawn  from  the  points  p  and  q,  parallel  to  the  radius  6  n. 

Curtail  step  is  the  lowest  step  of  the  stair,  one  end  being  formed 
into  a  spiral,  agreeable  to  the  scroll  of  the  hand  rail. 

JiCt  the  balusters  be  so  placed,  that  the  distances  between  every 
two  nearest  may  be  all  equal,  that  two  balusters  may  stand  upon 
every  step,  and  that  the  front  of  a  baluster  may  be  in  the  plane  of 
every  riser.  Likewise  that  the  middle  of  every  baluster,  may  be 
in  the  middle  of  the  breadth  of  the  hand-rail,  and  that  the' middle 
of  the  balusters  which  support  the  scroll,  may  also  be  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  breadth  of  the  scroll,  and  that  the  outer  edges  of  these 
balusters,  may  be  all  at  the  same  distance  from  the  curved  edge 
of  the  curtail  step,  and  lastly,  that  none  of  the  distances  between 
those  which  support  the  scroll,  be  greater  than  those  which  rise 
from  the  flyers  to  support  the  rail,  and  that  the  distances  of  the 
balusters  which  rise  from  the  curtail  step  to  support  the  scroll, 
may  be  less  and  less,  as  the  radius  of  curvature  for  describing  the 
plan  of  the  scroll  is  less. 

Hence  the  plan  of  the  rail  will  be  in  the  middle  of  the  plan  of 
the  curtail  step,  and  because  the  projection  of  the  nosing  from  the 
outside  the  baluster,  is  greater  than  the  projection  of  the  outside 
of  the  rail,  the  breadth  of  the  scroll  of  the  hand-rail,  will  be  less 
than  the  breadth  of  the  scroll  worked  on  the  end  of  the  curtail  step. 


JOINERY. 


157 


To  describe  tJie  Curtail  Step. 

Let  the  balusters  be  properly  placed  in  the  order  now  described, 
arid  let  k  be  the  angle  of  the  baluster  in  the  front  of  the  second 
riser,  and  let  n  o  be  the  breadth  of  a  baluster  in  the  breadth  of  the 
?eil.  Make  o  d  each  equal  to  the  projection  of  the  nosing,  and 
through  the  point  d  describe  the  spiral  d  e  f  g  i,  to  follow  the 
nearest  spiral  in  the  place  of  the  rail ;  also  through  the  point  p 
describe  the  spiral  p  m  l,  so  as  to  be  every  where  equidistant 
I'rom  that  which  forms  the  other  edge  of  the  plan  of  the  scroll. 
These  two  last  described  spirals  may  be  drawn  from  the  same 
centres,  as  those  from  which  the  edges  of  the  scroll  were  drawn. 
To  render  this  description  evident  to  workmen,  b  c  is  a  section  of 
the  nosing  of  the  front  of  the  curtail  step,  and  c  d  is  a  plan  of  the 
nosing  attached  to  the  straight  part  of  the  curtail  step.  Likewise 
L  M  is  the  plan  of  the  nosing  which  projects  from  the  strong  board. 


To  describe  tlie  Face  Mould  for  tJie  meathed  part  of  the  Scroll. 

Draw  the  straight  line  u  v,  parallel  to  the  shank  of  the  scroll, 
to  touch  the  interior  part  nearest  the  centre,  and  let  it  meet  the 
outside  of  the  scroll  in  v.  Make  v  u  equal  to  the  breadth  of  one  of 
the  flyers,  and  draw  u  w,  perpendicular  to  v  w,  and  make  w  w  equal 
to  the  height  of  a  step,  and  join  v  w.  From  the  curved  edge  of 
the  scroll,  draw  ordinates  perpendicular  to  u  u.  Transfer  the 
several  distances  from  w,  where  the  ordinate  or  ordinates  pro- 
duced, intersect  v  w,  to  the  line  v  Fig.  5,  and  draw  the  ordi- 
nates  in  Fig.  5,  and  make  them  respectively  equal  to  the  ordinates 
both  of  the  outside  and  inside  curves  of  Fig,  5,  and  the  ends,  then 
the  shadowed  figure  of  Fig.  5,  will  be  the  face  mould. 


158 


JOliNEilY. 


To  Jind  the  Falling  Moulds, 

Let  Q  be  that  point  in  the  outside  spiral  which  separates  the 
wreathed  part  of  the  scroll  from  the  level  next  to  the  centre. 

In  Fig,  4,  describe  the  right-angled  triangle  a  c  b,  identical  to 
the  right-angled  triangle  uvw,  Fig,  1,  a  b  being  equal  to  the  height 
of  a  step.  Produce  a  c  to  e,  and  make  d  e  equal  to  the  develope- 
inent  of  the  next  line,  tjyvno,. 

Divide  a  b  into  six  equal  parts,  and  let  d  be  the  first  point  of 
division.  Draw  d  f  parallel  to  a  e,  and  e  f,  parallel  to  a  d,  inter- 
secting B  c  in  G.  Describe  a  parabola  b  h  f,  to  touch  g  f  and 
G  B  at  B  and  f  ;  this  may  be  conveniently  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tions of  lines ;  also  draw  another  curve,  i  k  L,  under  the  other, 
and  every  where  2  inches  distant  from  it,  which  distance  must  be 
the  depth  of  the  rail,  and  the  falling  mould,  Fig,  4,  for  the  convex 
side  will  be  complete.    Fig.  3,  inside  falling  mould. 


PLATE  XXI. 

explanation. 

Showing  the  Construction  of  a  Dog-leg  Staircase, 

No.  1.  the  plan. 
No.  2,  the  elevation. 

A  B,  No.  2.  the  lower  newel,  the  part  B  C  being  turned 
a  No.  1.  the  seat  of  the  newel  on  the  plan. 
G  H,  No.  2.  the  upper  newel. 
g,  No.  1.  its  seat  on  the  plan. 

D  E  and  F  G,  No.  2.  lower  and  upper  string  boards  framed 
mto  the  newels. 

K  L,  No.  2  a  joist  framed  into  the  trimmer  I. 

kl,n  0,  q  r,  &c.  No.  2.  the  faces  of  the  risers ;  m  n,  p  q,  s  t, 
the  treads  of  the  cover  boards. 

m,  p,  5,  &;c.  No.  2.  the  nosings  of  steps. 


JOINERY. 


150 


The  dotted  lines  on  the  plan,  represent  the  faces  of  the  risers ; 
and  the  continued  lines,  the  nosings  of  the  steps. 
M  O  and  F  Q,  upper  and  lower  ramps. 

The  method  of  drawing  the  ramp  is  as  follows :  suppose  the 
upper  ramp  to  be  drawn ;  produce  the  top  H  M  of  the  rail  to  P 
draw  M  N  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  produce  the  straigh 
part  O  N  of  the  pitch  of  the  rail,  to  meet  it  in  N  ;  making  N  O 
equal  to  N  M  :  draw  O  P  at  right  angle  to  O  N :  from  P  as  a 
centre,  describe  the  arc  M  O,  and  then  the  other  concentric  cir- 
cle, which  will  complete  the  ramp  required. 

R  S  the  story  rod ;  a  necessary  article  in  fixing  the  steps,  for 
if  put  up  only  by  a  common  measuring  rule,  will  frequently  occa- 
sion an  excess  or  defect  in  the  height,  so  as  to  render  the  stair 
extremely  faulty,  which  cannot  be  the  case,  if  the  story  rod  is 
applied  to  every  riser,  and  the  riser  regulated  thereby.  In  the 
aforesaid  case,  the  error  is  liable  to  multiply. 


PLATE  XXII. 

To  draw  the  Scroll  of  a  Hand-rail, 

In  Fig.  A,  make  a  circle  for.  the  eye  three  inches  and  a  half 
diameter,  divide  the  diameter  into  three  equal  parts,  and  make  a 
square  in  the  centre  to  one  of  those  parts,  and  divide  each  side  of 
the  square  into  six  equal  parts ;  this  square  is  shown  in  E,  at  the 
bottom,  in  full  size  for  practice,  and  laid  in  the  same  position  as 
the  little  square,  above,  so  that  the  centres  may  be  more  readily 
found.  These  centres  are  all  marked  in  a  regular  position  ;  the 
centre  at  1  draws  from  i  round  to  k,  the  centre  at  2  draws  from 
k  to  Z,  and  the  centre  at  3  draws  from  I  to  ttz,  (fee.  which  will 
complete  the  outside  revolution  at  a,  with  the  centre  c;  then  set 
the  thickness  of  the  rail  from  a  to  /,  and  go  the  reverse  way  to 
draw  the  mside ;  then  the  scroll  will  be  completed. 


160  JOINERY. 

Note,  In  order  to  prevent  confusion,  the  letters  are  not  Kiarked 
in  the  small  square,  Fig.  A. 


To  draw  the  Curtail  Step, 

Set  the  balusters  in  their  proper  places  on  each  quarter  of  the 
scroll  in  Fig.  A  ;  the  first  baluster  shows  the  return  of  the  nosing 
round  the  step,  the  second  baluster  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  twist,  and  the  third  baluster  a  quarter  distant,  and  straight 
with  the  front  of  the  last  riser :  then  the  projection  of  the  nosing 
is  set  without,  and  drawn  concentric  with  the  scroll,  which  will 
give  the  form  of  the  curtail. 


To  draw  the  Face  Mould  for  squaring  the  Twist  Part  of  the  Scroll, 

The  reader  will  observe  here,  that  the  joint  is  made  at  3,  6, 
just  to  clear  the  side  of  the  scroll ;  draw  ordinates  across  the  scroll 
at  discretion,  to  cut  the  line  d  b,  a  b  c  being  the  pitch  board  ;  take 
notice  that  lines  be  drawn  from  3  and  6  to  meet  d,  b,  so  that  you 
may  have  the  said  points  exact  at  3  and  6  in  your  face  mould ; 
then  take  the  line  5,  and  mark  the  places  of  the  ordinates  upon 
a  rod,  and  transfer  the  divisions  to  (2  5  in  B,  then  trace  B,  from 
Fioj.  A,  according  to  the  letters. 


To  find  the  falling  Mould  C, 

In  C,  ab  c  13  the  pitch-board ;  the  height  is  divided  into  six 
parts,  to  give  the  level  of  the  scroll ;  the  distance  a  d  is  from  the 
face  of  the  riser  to  the  beginning  of  the  twist ;  and  the  distance 
from  d  to  k  in  C,  is  the  stretch-out  from  «,  the  beginning  of  the 
twist  to  h  in  Fig.  A ;  each  being  any  point  taken  at  discretion 


JOINERY 


161 


more  than  the  first  quarter ;  divide  the  level  of  the  scroll,  and  the 
rake  of  the  pitch-board,  into  a  like  number  of  parts,  and  complete 
the  top  edge  of  the  mould  by  intersecting  lines,  and  the  under 
edge  parallel  to  it  to  the  depth  of  the  rail. 


To  Jind  the  parallel  thicJeness  of  Stuff  for  the  Twist  and  Scroll. 

Extend  the  curve  abode,  to  6,  in  Fig.  A,  upon  the  base  of 
the  pitch-board  from  d  to  g,  in  Fig.  C  ;  draw  g  h  perpendicular  to 
intersect  with  the  top  of  the  mould ;  draw  the  dotted  line  h  f 
parallel  to  the  level  of  the  scroll  both  ways ;  apply  the  distance 
6  1,  in  Fig.  A,  that  is,  the  length  of  the  plan,  for  the  twist  part, 
from  cZ  to  e  in  C,  and  draw  e  f  perpendicular,  to  cut  the  parallel 
fh;  draw  a  dotted  line  through/,  parallel  to  c  b,  the  longest  side 
of  the  pitch-board,  which  gives  the  thickness  of  stuff  for  the  twist, 
about  three  inches  and  a  half;  and  the  parallel  line  fromy*  to  the 
base,  shows  the  thickness  of  the  scroll. 

Note.  The  falling  mould  D,  for  the  outside,  is  found  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  other  falling  mould  C. 

In  order  to  get  a  true  idea  of  the  twist  of  the  hand  rail,  the 
section  of  the  rail  by  a  plane  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  well- 
hole  or  cylinder  is  every  where  a  rectangle,  that  is,  the  plumb  or 
vertical  section,  tending  to  the  centre  of  the  stair.  This  rect- 
angle  is  every  where  of  an  equal  breadth,  but  not  of  an  equal 
vertical  dimension  in  every  part  of  the  rail,  unless  that  the  risers 
and  treads  were  every  where  the  same,  from  the  top  to  the  hot- 
tom :  the  height  is  greatest  above  the  winders,  because  the  tread 
is  of  less  breadth,  and  it  is  of  less  height  above  the  flyers ;  the 
tread  being  the  greatest.  If  you  cut  the  rail  after  squaring  it, 
perpendicular  to  any  of  its  curved  sides,  the  section  will  not  then 
be  a  rectangle,  three  of  the  sides  will  at  least  be  curved.  Hence 
two  falling  moulds  laid  down  in  the  usual  way,  will  not  square  the 
rail,  though  in  wide  openings,  they  may  do  it  sufficiently  near 

Nos.  11&12.  u 


162 


JOINERY. 


Hence  in  squaring  the  rail,  the  square  can  never  be  applied  at 
right  angles  to  any  one  of  the  four  arrises,  for  the  edge  of  the  stock 
will  not  comply  with  the  side  of  the  rail,  being  curved ;  this  would 
be  easily  made  to  appear  by  making  a  wreathed  part  of  a  rail,  of 
unusual  dimensions,  and  cutting  it  in  both  directions.  Therefore, 
to  apply  the  square  right,  keep  the  stock  to  the  plumb  of  the  stair; 
and  to  guide  the  blade  properly,  the  stock  ought  to  be  very  thick, 
and  made  concave  to  the  plan,  so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
its  wabbling  or  turning  from  side  to  side  ;  as  a  little  matter  up  or 
a  little  down,  in  the  direction  of  the  blade,  would  make  a  great 
difference  in  the  rectangling  or  squaring  of  the  rail. 

All  this  might  easily  be  conceived  from  the  cylinder  itself,  for 
there  is  no  direction  in  which  a  straight  line  can  be  drawn  on  the 
surface  of  a  cylinder,  but  one,  and  this  line  is  in  a  plane  passing 
through  the  axis  of  the  cylinder ;  and  as  the  two  vertical  surfaces 
of  the  rail  are  portions  of  cylinders,  there  can  be  no  straight  line 
upon  such  surface,  but  what  must  be  vertical ;  all  others  from  this 
principle  are  curves ;  o^  the  sections  of  the  rail  are  bounded  by 
curves,  or  by  a  curve  on  that  side. 

In  gluing  a  rail  up  in  thicknesses,  it  will  be  sufficiently  near  to 
get  out  a  piece  of  wood  to  the  twisted  form  by  two  falling  moulds, 
provided  the  well-hole  be  not  less  than  one  foot  diameter ;  the 
thickness  of  this  piece,  as  is  there  stated,  must  be  equal  to  the 
thickness,  or  rather  the  horizontal  breadth  of  the  rail,  together 
with  the  thickness  which  the  number  of  saw  kerfs  will  amount  to; 
and  also  the  amount  of  the  substance,  taken  away  by  planing  the 
veneers.  We  are  now  supposing  the  plan  of  the  rail  to  be  semi- 
circular, with  two  straight  »'arts  one  above  and  one  below;  a 
plan  more  frequently  ad  from  motives  of  economy,  than  from 
any  propriety  of  elegance. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  make  a  cylinder  of  plank  to  the 
size  of  the  well-hole.  Draw  two  level  lines  round  the  surface  of  this 
cylinder,  at  the  top  and  bottom ;  upon  each  of  these  lines,  set  off  the 
treads  of  the  steps,  at  the  end  next  the  well-hole.    Draw  lines 


JOINERY. 


163 


between  every  two  corresponding  points  at  the  head  and  foot, 
and  these  lines  will  be  all  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 
Upon  the  two  lines  where  the  cylindric  part  begins  to  commence, 
and  also  upon  a  middle  line  between  these  lines,  set  the  heights 
of  the  winders,  and  the  height  of  one  of  the  flyers  above  and 
below,  or  as  much  as  is  intended  to  be  taken  ofl*  the  straight 
of  the  rail.  Take  a  pliable  slip  of  wood,  straight  on  one  edge,  and 
bend  it  round,  and  keep  the  straight  edge  of  it  upon  the  three  cor- 
responding points  at  the  height  of  the  last  rise  of  the  flyer;  then  draw 
the  tread  of  the  first  winding  step  by  the  straight  edge  from  the  line 
where  the  cylindric  part  commences  to  the  first  perpendicular  line 
on  the  curved  surface ;  take  the  next  three  points  higher,  and  draw 
a  line  between  the  second  and  third  perpendicular  lines*,  proceed  in 
like  manner  with  the  next  three  higher  points,  and  draw  a  line 
between  the  next  two  adjoining  cylindric  lines,  and  the  hnes  so 
drawn  between  each  three  points  will  be  the  section  of  the  treads  of 
the  succeeding  winding  steps. 

Having  thus  gone  through  the  cylindric  part,  draw  a  step  at  the 
top,  and  another  at  the  bottom,  and  thus  the  sections  of  the  steps 
will  be  completed ;  draw  the  hypothenusal  or  pitch  lines  of  the  flyer 
on  the  lower  part,  and  that  of  the  upper  part,  and  whatever  differ- 
ence  you  make  in  the  height  of  the  rail  between  the  flyers  and  the 
winders,  you  must  set  it  up  from  the  nosings  of  the  steps  of  the 
winders  upon  two  of  the  perpendicular  lines :  draw  a  line  through 
the  two  points,  by  bending  a  straight  edged  slip  round  the  cylinder, 
the  straight  edge  of  the  slip  coinciding  with  these  points ;  this  line 
will  represent  the  top  of  the  rail  over  the  winders,  and  the  hypothe. 
nusal  lines  at  the  bottom  and  top  that  of  the  flyers,  then  curve  3f! 
the  angles  at  the  top  and  bottom  where  the  rail  of  the  winding  parts 
meets  that  of  the  flyers  above  and  below,  then  a  line  being  drawn 
parallel  to  this,  will  form  the  falling  mould.  The  reason  of  making 
the  vertical  elevation  of  the  rail  more  upon  the  winders  than  the 
flyers,  is,  that  the  sudden  elevation  of  the  winders  diminishes  the 
height  of  the  rail  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  raking  line,  and 
by  this  means  persons  would  be  liable  to  fall  over  it. 


164 


JOINERY. 


To  lay  the  veneers  upon  the  cylinder,  if  bed  screws  or  wedges 
are  used,  you  may  try  the  veneers  first  upon  the  cylinder,  screwing 
them  down  without  glue ;  prepare  several  pieces  of  wood,  to  lie 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart,  according  to  the  diameter  of  the 
well-hole,  with  two  holes  in  each,  distant  in  the  clear  something 
more  than  the  breadth  of  the  rail.  Then  having  marked  the  posi- 
tions of  the  places  of  these  pieces  on  the  cylinder,  pierce  the  cy- 
linder with  corresponding  holes  on  each  side  of  the  depth  of  the 
rail.  If  the  cylinder  is  made  of  plank  two  inches  thick,  it  will  be 
sufficient  for  the  screws  :  but  if  of  thinner  stuff,  it  will  be  conve- 
nient to  set  it  an  end  upon  stools  to  get  underneath,  confining  the 
top  with  nuts.  Unscrew  one  half,  three  men  being  at  work,  one 
holding  up  all  the  veneers,  another  gluing,  and  the  third  laying  them 
down  successively,  one  after  the  other,  until  all  are  glued :  screw 
them  down  immediately.  Unscrew  the  other  half,  and  proceed  in 
like  manner,  and  the  rail  will  be  glued  up.  The  glue  that  is  used 
for  this  purpose,  ought  to  be  clear,  and  as  hot  as  possible :  the  rail 
ought  likewise  to  be  made  hot,  as  otherwise  the  glue  will  be  liable 
to  set  before  all  the  veneers  are  put  down,  and  ready  for  the 
screws :  this  operation  should  therefore  be  done  befc/e  a  large 
fire ;  the  veneers  thoroughly  heated  previous  to  the  commencement, 
in  order  that  the  heat  may  be  as  uniformly  retained  as  possible, 
throughout  the  process.  The  glue  in  the  joints  of  the  rail,  will  take 
about  three  weeks  to  harden  in  dry  weather. 


that  the  light  and  shade  of  the  adjoining  hollows  are  more  con- 
trasted,  the  angle  of  their  meeting  being  more  acute,  than  if  a  flat 
space  were  formed  between  them.  See  Figs.  12  and  13,  fluting 
round  the  convex  surface  of  a  cji^linder 


JOINERY. 


165 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XXII. 

Showing  the  Construction  of  Geometrical  Stairs* 

No.  1.  the  plan. 

No.  2.  the  elevation  or  section. 

A  B,  No.  1.  the  curtail  step,  which  must  be  first  fixed. 

C,  C,  C,  &c.  flyers  supported  below  upon  rough  carriages 
and  partly  from  the  string  board  D  H  E  F,  No.  2  ;  sometimes  the 
ends  next  to  the  wall  are  housed  into  a  notch  board,  and  the  steps 
made  of  thick  wood,  and  no  carriages  used. 

G,  G,  G,  &c.  winders  fixed  to  bearers,  cross  bearers,  and 
pitching  pieces,  when  the  flyers  are  supported  upon  carriages: 
sometimes  the  winders  are  made  of  strong  stuff,  firmly  wedged 
into  the  wall,  the  steps  screwed  together,  and  the  other  ends  of 
the  steps  fixed  to  the  string  D  E  H  F.  The  strength  of  the  stair 
may  be  powerfully  assisted  by  a  bar  of  wrought  iron,  made  to 
coincide  with  the  inside,  and  screwed  to  the  string  immediately 
below  the  steps ;  this  would  make  a  very  light  stair,  and  if  well 
attended  to  in  the  workmanship,  will  be  equal  in  firmness  to  one 
of  stone. 

H  I  K,  the  wall  line  of  the  soffit  of  the  stair  for  winding  the 
part, 

L  M  N,  part  of  the  rail  supported  by  two  balusters  upon 
every  step. 


n2 


INDEX 

AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

JOINERY, 

N  B    nis  Mark  §  refers  to  the  preceding  Sections  according  to 

the  Number 

A. 

AsRis,  the  line  of  concourse  or  meeting  of  two  surfaces. 

B. 

Baes  for  sashes,  §  70.  See  Plate  XIX.  Figs.  1, 2,  3, 4, 6, 6,  7, 8. 
Basil,  §  5. 

Batten,  a  scantling  of  stuiT  from  two  inches  to  seven  inches  in 
breadth,  and  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  a  half  thick,  §  82. 
,    Beads,  §  31,  68,  69.    See  Plaie  XIV.  Figs,  2,  3.    Plate  XV. 
Figs,  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Bearing  Joint  is  the  joint  formed  by  the  meeting  of  several 
heading  joists  in  one  continued  line,  which  is  sometimes  the 
case  in  folded  floors. 

Bench,  §  2,  67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  12. 

Bench  Hook,  §  2. 

Bench  Planes,  §  14.    See  Plate  XII.  Figs,  1,  2,  3. 


JOINERY. 


167 


Bench  Screw,  §  2. 

Bevel.  One  side  is  said  to  be  bevelled  with  respect  to  another, 
when  the  angle  formed  by  these  two  sides,  is  greater  or  less 
than  a  right  angle. 

Bevel,  the  tool,  §  58,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  12. 

Bits,  §  34.    See  Plaie  XIII.  Fig.  1. 

Blade  is  expressed  of  any  part  of  a  tool  that  is  broad  and  thin, 
as  the  blade  of  an  axe,  of  an  adze,  of  a  chisel,  of  a  square. 
The  blade  of  a  saw  is  more  frequently  called  the  plate. 

Boarding  Floors,  §  82, 

Bottom  Rail,  the  lowest  rail  of  a  door. 

Bead,  a  small  nail  without  any  projecting  head,  except  on  one 
edge.  The  intention  is  to  drive  it  within  the  surface  of  the 
wood,  by  means  of  a  hammer  and  punch,  and  fill  the  cavity  flush 
to  the  surface  with  putty. 

Brad  Awl,  §  39,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  3. 

Brace  and  Bits,  the  same  as  stock  and  bits. 

Bbeaking  Joint,  is,  not  to  allow  two  joints  to  come  together. 

C. 

Casting  or  Warping,  is  the  bending  of  the  surfaces  of  a  piece 
of  wood  from  their  original  position,  either  by  the  weight  of  the 
wood,  or  by  an  unequal  exposure  to  the  weather,  or  by  unequal 
exture  of  the  wood. 

Cavetto,  §  68. 

Centre  Bits,  §  35. 

Chisels,  §  40.    See  Plate  XIII.  Figs.  3,  4,  5. 

Cima.Recta,  §  68     See  Plate  XIV.  Figs.  10,  11. 

Cima.Reversa,  §  68.    See  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  12. 

Clamp,  a  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  board,  by  mortise 
and  tenon,  or  by  groove  and  tongue,  so  that  the  fibres  of  the 
one  piece  thus  fixed,  transverse  those  of  the  board,  and  by  this 
means  prevents  it  from  casting ;  the  piece  at  the  end  is  called 
a  clamp,  and  the  board  is  said  to  be  clamped. 


168 


JOINERY. 


Clear  Story  Windows  are  those  that  have  no  transom. 
Countersinks,  §  36. 
Compass  Plane,  §  15. 

Compass  Saw,  §  53.    See  Plate  XIIL  Fig.  9. 

Cross-grained  Stuff,  is  wood  havi-ng  its  fibres  running  in  con. 
trary  positions  to  the  surfaces,  and  consequently  cannot  be  made 
perfectly  smooth,  when  planed  in  one  direction,  without  turning 
it  or  turning  the  plane.  This  most  frequently  arises  from  a 
twisted  disposition  of  the  fibres,  mmmmm  mmmm 

Curling  Stuff,  is  that  which  is  occasioned  by  the  winding  or 
coiling  of  the  fibres  round  the  boughs  of  the  tree,  when  they 
begin  to  shoot  out  of  the  trunk.  The  double  iron  planes  now 
in  use,  are  a  most  complete  remedy  against  cross-grained  and 
curling  stuff ;  the  plane  will  nearly  work  as  smooth  against  the 
grain  as  with  it. 

D. 

Dado  Grooving  Planes,  §  29. 

Door  Frame,  the  surrounding  case  into,  and  out  of  which  the 
door  shuts  and  opens,  consisting  of  two  upright  pieces  and  a 
head,  generally  fixed  together  by  mortise  and  tenon,  and 
wrought,  rebated,  and  beaded. 

Doors,  §  70.    See  Plates  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII. 

Door  Hung,  §  84. 

Double  Torus,  §  69.    See  Plate  XV 
Dove-tail  Saw,  §  52. 

Draging  in  the  hanging  of  doors,  is  a  depression  or  lowering  o! 
the  door,  so  as  to  make  it  rub  on  the  floor,  occasioned  by  the 
loosening  of  the  hinges,  or  the  settling  of  the  building. 

Draw  Bore  Pins,  two  iron  pins  with  wooden  handles,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forcing  the  shoulders  of  tenons  against  the  abutments  on 
the  cheeks  of  the  mortises,  so  as  make  a  close  joint.  Draw 
bore  pins  are  in  joinery,  what  hook  pins  are  in  carpentry,  and 
used  in  a  similar  manner.    See  Carpentry,  §  20. 

Drawing  Knife,  §  44. 


JOINERY  169 
£. 

Edge  Tools,  all  tools  made  sharp  so  as  to  cut. 

F. 

Fence,  the  guard  of  a  plane  which  obliges  it  to  work  to  a  certain 
horizontal  breadth  from  the  arris.  All  moulding  planes,  except 
hollows  and  rounds,  and  snipesbills,  have  fixed  fences  as  well  as 
fixed  stops,  but  in  fillisters  and  plows,  the  fences  are  moveabloj 
§20,  21,22,  23,  28,  31. 

Fine  Set,  when  the  iron  has  a  very  small  projection  below  the 
sole  of  the  plane,  so  as  to  take  a  very  thin  broad  shaving,  it  is 
said  to  be  fine  set. 

Firmer  Chisel,  §  67.    See  Plate  XIII. 

Floors,  §  82. 

FORKSTAFF  PlANE,  §  16. 

Framing,  §  81. 

Free  Stuff,  that  which  is  quite  clean  or  without  knots,  and  works 

easily,  without  tearing. 
Frowy  Stuff,  the  same  as  free  stuff. 

6. 

Gauge,  §  59,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  13. 
Gimlet,  §  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  2.  No.  1,  2. 
Gouge,  §  43. 

Grind  Stone,  a  cylindric  stone,  which  being  turned  round  its 
axis,  edge  tools  are  sharpened  by  applying  the  basil  to  the  con- 
vex surface. 

Grinding  the  Iron,  §  6. 

Groove,  §  28. 

Grooving  Planes,  §  28.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  8,  9.    §  2. 

H. 

Hammer,  See  Carpentry.    §  15. 

X 


170 


JOINERY. 


Hand  Saw,  §  48,  67.    See  P/ate  XIII.  Fig,  6. 
Hanging  Dooks,  §  84. 
Hanging  Shutters,  §  83. 
Hatchet,  §  65. 

Hinging  Doors  and  Shutters,  §  83,  84. 
Hollows  and  Rounds,  §  33. 

J. 

Jack  Plane,  §  6,  8,  67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  1. 
Jointer,  §  12» 

E. 

Kerf,  the  way  which  the  saw  makes  in  dividing  a  piece  of  wood 

into  two  parts. 
Key-hole  Saw,  §  64,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  10. 
Knot,  that  part  of  a  branch  of  a  tree  where  it  issues  out  of  the 

trunk. 

L 

Long  Plane,  §  11. 

Lower  Rail,  the  rail  at  the  foot  of  a  door  next  to  the  floor. 
Lying  Panel,  a  panel  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood  disposed 

horizontally.     Lying  panels  have  their  horizontal  dimensions 

generally  greater  than  the  vertical  dimension. 

M. 

Mallet.  See  Car^eniry^  §  16.  Joinery,  §  67.  and  Plate  XII. 
Fig.  9. 

Margins  or  Margents,  the  flat  part  of  the  stiles  and  rails  of 
framed  work. 

Middle  Rail,  the  rail  of  a  door  which  is  upon  a  level  with  the 
hand  when  hanging  freely  and  bending  the  joint  of  the  wrest. 
The  lock  of  the  door  is  generally  fixed  in  this  rail.  mmm 

Mitre.  When  two  pieces  of  wood  are  formed  to  equal  angles,  or 
each  two  sides  of  each  piece  at  equal  inclinations,  and  two 
sides,  one  of  each  piece,  joined  together  at  their  common  vertex, 


JOINERY. 


171 


so  as  to  make  an  angle,  or  an  inclination  double  to  that  of  either 
piece,  they  are  said  to  be  mitred  together,  and  the  joint  is  called 
the  mitre.    The  angle  which  is  thus  formed  by  the  junction  o' 
the  two,  is  generally  a  right  angle. 
Mitre  Square,  §  66. 

Mortise  Chisels,  §  42,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig,  5. 
Mortise  and  Tenon,  §  81. 
Mortise  Gauge,  §  60. 
Moulding  Planes,  §  30. 

Mouldings,  §  68, 69,70.  ^eePZateXIV,  XV,  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII,  XIX. 
Moving  Fillister,  §  20. 

MuLLioN,  the  large  bars  or  divisions  of  windows. 

MuNNioN,  a  large  vertical  bar  of  a  window  frame,  separating  two 

casements  or  glass  frames  from  each  other. 
MuNTiNs  or  MoNTANTS,  the  vertical  pieces  of  the  frame  of  a  door 

between  the  stiles. 

O. 

Ogee,  a  moulding,  the  transverse  section  of  which  consists  of  two 
curves  of  contrary  flexture,  §  68.  See  Plate  XIV.  Figs,  10, 
11,12. 

P. 

Panel,  a  thin  board,  having  all  its  edges  inserted  in  the  grooves 

of  a  surrounding  frame. 
Panel  Saw,  §  49. 

Plow,  §  28,  67.    See  Plate  I.  Fig.  8. 

Q. 

Quarter  Round,  §  68.    See  Fig,  7, 

R. 

Rails,  the  horizontal  pieces  which  contain  the  tenons  in  a  piece  of 
framing,  in  which  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  panels  are 
inserted. 

Raisers.    See  Risers, 


172 


JOINERY. 


Rank  Set,  is  when  the  edge  of  the  iron  projects  considerably 

below  the  sole  of  the  plane,  so  as  to  take  a  thick  shaving. 
Rebate,  §  18. 
Rebating,  §  79,  80. 

Rebating  Planes,  §  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  also 

67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig,  6,  7. 
Reeded  Mouldings,  §  69.    See  Plate  XV.  Figs,  7,  8,  9. 
Return.    In  any  body  with  two  surfaces  joining  each  other  at  an 

angle,  one  of  the  surfaces  is  said  to  return  ir.  respect  of  the  other ; 

or  if  standing  before  one  surface,  so  that  the  eye  may  be  in  a 

straight  line  with  the  other,  or  nearly  so ;  this  last  is  said  to  return 
Rimers,  §  37. 
Ripping  Saw,  §  46. 

Risers,  the  vertical  sides  of  the  steps  of  stairs. 
Rub  Stone,  §  6. 

S. 

Sash  Fillisters,  §  21,  22.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  8. 
Sash  Saw,  §  51,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  8. 
Saws,  §  45. 

Scantling  the  transverse  dimensions  of  a  piece  of  timber,  sometimes 
also  the  small  timbers  in  roofing  and  flooring,  are  called  scantlings. 
Scotia,  §  68.    See  Plate  XIV.  Fig,  9. 
Scribe,  §  85. 
Shoot,  a  joint,  §  74. 
Shooting  Block,  §  63. 
Shutters  Hung,  §  83. 

Side  Hook,  §  61,  67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  11. 
Side  Rebating  Planes,  §  27. 
Side  Snipesbills,  §  32. 

Single  Torus,  §  69.   See  Plate  XIY.  Fig.  5.  Plate  XV.  Fig.  5 
Smoothing  Plane,  §  13,  67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig.  3. 
Snipesbills,  §  32. 

Square,  §  56,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  11. 

Staff,  a  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  external  angle  of  the  two 


JOINERY. 


173 


upright  sides  of  a  wall  for  floating  the  plaster  to,  and  for  de. 
fending  the  angle  against  accidents. 
Stiles  of  a  door,  are  the  vertical  parts  of  the  framing  at  the  edges 
of  the  door. 

Stock  and  Bits,  §  34,  67.    See  Plate  13.  Fig,  1. 
Straight  Block,  §  17. 
Straight  Edge,  §  64. 
Stuff,  §  1. 

SuRBASE,  the  upper  base  of  a  room,  or  rather  the  cornice  of  the 
pedestal  of  the  room  which  serves  to  finish  the  dado,  and  to 
secure  the  plaster  against  accidents,  as  might  happen  by  vhe 
backs  of  chairs  or  other  furniture  on  the  same  level 

T. 

Tang  of  an  Iron  is  the  narrow  part  of  it  which  passes  througn 

the  mortise  in  the  stock. 
Taper,  the  form  of  a  piece  of  wood  which  arises  from  one  end  of 

a  piece  being  narrower  than  the  other. 
Tenon  Saw,  §  50,  67.    See  Plate  XIII.  Fig,  7. 
Tooth,  a  small  piece  of  steel  with  cutting  edge  in  fillisters  and  gauges 
Torus,  §  69.    See  Plate  XIV.  Fig,  5.    Plate  XV.  Figs,  6,  6. 
Transom  Windows,  those  which  have  horizontal  mullions. 
Trussels,  four-legged  stools  for  ripping  and  cross-cutting  timber 

upon.    For  this  purpose  there  are  generally  two  required,  and 

when  the  timber  is  very  long,  an  additional  trussel  in  the  middle 

will  be  found  necessary. 
Try,  §  78. 
Trying,  §  78. 

Trying  Plane,  §  9,  10,  67.    See  Plate  XII.  Fig,  10. 
Turning  Saw,  §  54,  67.    See  Plate  XIV  Fig.  20. 

W. 

Warp.    See  Cast 

Web  of  an  Iron  is  the  broad  part  of  it  which  comes  to  the  sole  of 
the  plane,  the  upper  edge  or  end  of  the  web  has  generally  one 
shoulder,  and  sometimes  two,  where  it  joins  ;he  tang. 

Winding  Sticks.  §  64. 


BRICKLAYING. 


§1.  Bricklaying  is  an  art  by  which  bricks  are  joined  and  ce- 
mented, so  as  to  adhere  as  one  body. 

This  art,  in  London,  includes  the  business  of  walling,  tiling, 
and  paving,  with  bricks  or  tiles ;  and  sometimes  the  bricklayer 
undertakes  the  business  of  plastering  also :  but  this  is  only  done 
by  masters  in  a  small  way.  In  the  country,  bricklaying  and  plas- 
termg  are  generally  joined  :  and  not  unfrequently  the  art  of  ma- 
sonry also ;  which  has  a  nearer  affinity  to  it  than  that  of  plastering. 

The  bricklayer  is  supplied  with  bricks  and  mortar  at  his  work 
by  a  man,  called  a  labourer,  who  also  makes  the  mortar. 

The  materials  used  are  mortar,  bricks,  tiles,  laths,  nails,  and 
tile  pins ;  bricks  and  tiles  are  of  several  kinds,  which,  as  well  as 
other  descriptions  of  work,  are  treated  of  under  their  respective 
heads:  viz.  1.  The  tools.  2.  Of  cements.  3.  Of  brick-making, 
and  the  various  sorts  of  bricks.  4.  The  several  kinds  of  tiles  and 
laths.  5.  The  oVfTerent  methods  of  treating  foundations,  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  whether  of  an  uniform  or  mixed  texture. 
6.  Walling.  7.  A  description  of  the  plates.  Lastly,  An  expla- 
nation of  such  terms  as  have  not  been  defined  in  the  course  of  the 
work,  or  such  as  may  require  a  farther  explanation  ;  with  an  index 
to  the  principal  technical  terms  used  in  this  art,  and  in  connection 
therewiin,  2he  terms  and  index  being  placed  under  an  alphabetical 
wrangement,  as  to  the  former  branches  of  carpentry  and  joinery. 


BRICKLAYING. 


BRICKLAYING  TOOLS  DESCRIBED. 
§  2.  A  List  of  Walling  Tools. 

1.  A  brick  trowel ,  2.  a  hammer;  3.  a  plumb  rule ;  4.  a  level , 
5.  a  large  square ;  6.  a  rod;  7.  a  jointing  rule;  8.  a  jointer;  9.  a 
pair  of  compasses;  10.  a  raker;  11.  a  hod  ;  12.  a  pair  of  line 
pins  ;  13.  a  rammer ;  14.  an  iron  <cro\v  ;  15.  a  pick  axe  ;  16.  a 
grinding  stone  ;  17.  a  banker ;  18.  a  camber  slip  ;  19.  a  rubbing 
stone  ;  20.  a  bedding  stone ;  21.  a  square;  22.  a  bevel;  23.  a 
mould ;  24.  a  scribe ;  25.  a  saw ;  26.  an  axe  ;  27.  a  templet ; 
28.  a  chopping  block ;  29.  a  float  stone. 


§  3.  A  List  of  Tools  used  in  Tiling, 

1.  A  lathing  hammer;  2.  a  laying  trowel ;  3.  a  boss  ;  4.  a 
pantile  strike  ;  5.  a  scurbage. 

TOOLS  FOR  WALLING  DESCRIBED. 

§4.  THE  BRICK  TROWEL 

Is  used  for  taking  up  mortar,  and  spreading  it  on  the  top  of  the 
Wills,  in  order  to  cement  together  the  bricks  which  are  to  be  laid, 
and  also  to  cut  the  bricks  to  any  required  lengths. 

§6.  THE  HAMMER 
Is  used  for  cutting  holes  in  brick- work. 

§6.  THE  PLUMB  RULE 

Is  about  four  feet  long,  with  a  line  and  plummet,  in  order  to  cany 
the  faces  of  walls  up  vertically.    See  also  Carpentry,  §  14. 


lie  BRICKLAYING. 

§7.  THE  LEVEL 

Ls  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  in  order  to  try  the  level  of  walls 
at  various  stages  of  building,  and  particularly  at  window  sills  and 
wall  plates.    See  also  Carpentry,  §  12, 13. 


§8.  THE  LARGE  SQUARE 

Is  used  for  setting  out  the  sides  of  a  building  at  right  angles, 
which  is  also  obtained  by  Prob.  1,  2,  3.  Geometry,  page  24. 


§9.  THE  ROD 

Is  either  five  or  ten  feet  in  length,  and  used  for  measuring 
lengths,  breadths,  and  heights,  with  more  despatch  than  could  be 
done  by  a  pocket  rule. 


§  10.  THE  JOINTING  RULE 

Is  about  eight  or  ten  feet  long,  according  to  whether  one  or  two 
bricklayers  are  to  use  it,  and  about  four  inches  broad.  By  this 
rule,  they  run  the  joints  of  the  brick- work. 


§11.  THE  JOINTER 

A^ith  which,  and  the  jointing  rule  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
joints  are  niarked ;  it  is  shaped  like  the  letter  S,  and  is  of  iron. 


§12.  THE  COMPASSES 
Is  used  for  traversmg  arches  and  vaults. 


BRICKLAYING. 


177 


§13.  THE  RAKER 

Is  a  piece  of  iron  with  two  knees  or  rngles,  which  divide  it  into 
three  parts  at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  the  two  end  part?  are 
pointed  and  of  equal  lengths,  and  stand  upon  contrary  sides  of  the 
middle  part.  Its  use  is  to  pick  decayed  mortar  out  of  the  joints  in 
old  walls,  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  the  same  with  new  mortar. 


§  14.  THE  HOD 

Is  a  wooden  trough,  shut  up  at  one  end  and  open  at  the  other, 
the  sides  consisting  of  two  boards  at  right  angles  to  each  other  ; 
from  the  meeting  of  the  two  sides  projects  a  handle  at  right  angles  : 
this  machine  is  used  by  the  labourer  for  carrying  mortar  and  bricks; 
he  strews  the  inner  surface  over  with  fine  dry  sand  before  he  putb 
in  the  mortar,  which  prevents  it  sticking  to  the  wood,  then  placing 
it  upon  his  shoulder,  carries  the  load  to  the  bricklayer. 


§  15.  THE  LINE  PINB 

Are  two  iron  pins  for  fastening  and  stretching  the  line,  at  pro- 
per intervals  of  the  wall,  in  order  to  lay  the  course  of  brick-work 
level  on  the  bed,  and  straight  along  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  line 
pins  have  generally  a  length  of  sixty  feet  of  line,  fastened  to  each 
pin. 

§16.  THE  RAMMER 

Is  used  for  ascertaining  whether  the  ground  be  sufficiently  solid 

for  building  '\.on,  also  for  beating  the  ground  to  a  firm  bearing, 

so  as  to  give  it  the  utmost  degree  -^f  compression  ;  for  if  ground  is 

built  upon  in  a  loose  state,  in  all  probability  fractures  in  the  walls 

would  ensue,  and  endanger  the  whole  building.  See  Foundations, 
No.  12.  Y 


178 


BRICKLAYING. 
§  17.  THE  IRON  CROW  AND  PICK  AXE 


Are  used  in  conjunction  for  cutting  or  breaking  through  walls, 
or  raising  large  and  ponderous  substances  out  of  the  ground,  or 
the  like. 

§  18.  THE  GRINDING  STONE 
Is  used  for  sharpening  axes,  hammers,  and  other  tools. 


§  19.  THE  BANKER 

Is  a  bench  from  six  to  twelve  feet  in  length,  according  to  the 
number  of  those  who  are  to  work  at  it,  and  from  two  feet  six 
inches,  to  three  feet  in  breadth,  and  may  be  an  inch  thick,  and 
raised  about  two  feet  eight  inches  from  the  ground.  It  is  generally 
made  of  an  old  ledged  door,  set  upon  three  or  five  posts  in  front, 
and  its  back  edge  against  a  wall.  It  is  used  for  preparing  the 
bricks  for  rubbed  arches,  or  other  gauged  work  upon. 


§20.  THE  CAMBER  SLIP 

Is  a  piece  of  wood  generally  about  half  an  inch  thick,  with  at 
least  one  curved  edge  rising  about  one  inch  in  six  feet,  for  drawing 
the  soffit  lines  of  straight  arches,  when  the  other  edge  is  curved, 
it  rises  only  about  one  half  of  the  other,  viz.  about  half  an  inch  in 
six  feet,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  upper  side  of  the  said  arch, 
so  as  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  hollow  by  the  settling  of  the  arch. 
The  upper  edge  of  the  arch  is  not  always  cambered,  some  persons 
preferring  it  to  be  straight.  The  bricklayer  is  always  provided 
with  a  camber  slip ;  which  being  sufficiently  long,  answers  to  many 
different  widths  of  openings;  when  he  has  done  drawing  his  arch, 
he  gives  the  camber  shp  to  the  carpenter,  in  order  to  form  the 
centre  to  the  required  curve  of  the  soffit. 


BRICKLAYING. 


179 


§21.  THE  RUBBING  STONE 

Is  of  a  cylindric  form,  about  twenty  inches  diameter,  but  may 
be  more  or  less  at  pleasure,  fixed  at  one  end  of  the  banker  upon 
a  bed  of  mortar.  By  this,  the  bricks  which  have  been  previously 
axed,  are  rubbed  smooth  ;  also  the  headers  and  stretchers  m  re- 
turns, which  are  not  axed,  called  rubbed  returns,  and  rubbed 
headers  and  stretchers. 


§22.  THE  BEDDING  STONE 

Consists  of  a  straight  piece  of  marble,  not  less  than  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  in  length,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  wide,  and  of  any 
thickness.  Its  use  is,  to  try  the  rubbed  side  of  the  brick,  which  you 
must  first  square,  in  order  to  prove  whether  the  surface  of  the  brick 
be  straight,  so  as  to  fit  it  upon  the  leading  skew  back,  or  leading 
end  of  the  arch. 

§23.  THE  SQUARE 

Is  used  in  trying  the  bedding  of  the  bricks,  and  squaring  the 
soffits  across  the  breadth  of  the  said  bricks. 

§24.  THE  BEVEL 
For  drawing  the  soffit  line  on  the  face  of  the  bricks. 


§25.  THE  MOULD 
Is  used  in  forming  the  face  and  back  of  the  brick,  in  order  to 
its  being  reduced  in  thickness  to  its  proper  taper,  one  edge  of  the 
mould  being  brought  close  to  the  bed  of  the  brick  already  squared 
the  mould  has  a  notch  for  every  course  of  the  arch. 


180  BRICKLAYING. 

§26.  THE  SCRIBE 

Is  a  spike  or  large  nail  ground  to  a  sharp  point,  to  mark  tho 
bricks  on  the  face  and  back  by  the  tapering  edges  of  the  mould,  in 
order  to  cut  them. 

§27.  THE  TIN  SAW 

Is  used  for  cutting  the  soffit  lines  about  one-eighth  part  of  an 
inch  deep,  first  by  the  edge  of  the  bevel  on  the  face  of  the  brick, 
then  by  the  edge  of  the  square  on  the  bed  of  the  brick,  in  order 
to  enter  the  brick  axe,  and  to  keep  the  brick  from  spaltering. 
The  saw  is  also  used  in  cutting  the  soffit  through  its  breadth,  in 
the  direction  of  the  tapering  lines,  drawn  upon  the  face  and  back 
edge  of  the  brick,  but  the  cutting  is  always  made  deeper  on  the 
face  and  back  of  the  brick  than  in  the  middle  of  its  thickness,  for 
the  said  purpose  of  entering  the  axe  :  the  saw  is  likewise  used  for 
cutting  the  false  joints  of  headers  and  stretchers. 


§28.  THE  BRICK  AXE 

Is  used  for  axing  off  the  soffits  of  bricks  to  the  saw  cuttmgs, 
and  the  sides  to  the  lines  drawn  by  the  scribes.  As  the  bricks  are 
alvvays  rubbed  smooth  after  axing,  the  more  truly  they  are  axed, 
the  less  labour  there  will  be  in  rubbing. 


§29.  THE  TEMPLET 

Is  used  in  taking  the  length  of  the  stretcher  and  width  of  the 
header. 

Note.  The  last  ten  articles  relate  entirely  to  the  cutting  of  gauged 
arches,  which  are  now  the  principal  things  that  occur  in  gauged 
work. 


BRICKLAYLNG. 


181 


§30.  THE  CHOPPING  BLOCK 

Is  for  reducing  the  bricks  to  their  intended  form  by  axing  them, 
and  is  made  of  any  chance  piece  of  wood  that  can  be  obtained, 
from  six  to  eight  inches  square,  supported  generally  upon  two 
fourteen-inch  brick  piers,  provided  only  two  men  be  to  work  at  it 
but  if  four  men,  the  chopping  block  must  be  lengthened  and  sup 
ported  by  three  piers,  and  so  on  according  to  the  number.  It  iS 
about  two  feet  three  inches  in  height. 


§31.  THE  FLOAT  STONE 

Is  used  for  rubbing  curved  work  smooth,  such  as  the  cylindrical 
backs  and  spherical  heads  of  niches,  so  as  to  take  out  the  axe 
marks  entirely :  but  before  its  application,  it  must  first  be  brought 
to  the  reverse  form  of  the  intended  surface,  so  as  to  coincide  with 
it,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  finishing. 


§32.  Of  Cements, 

Calcarious  cements  may  be  classed  according  to  the  three  fol- 
lowing divisions:  namely,  simple  calcarious  cement,  water  ce- 
ment, mastichs,  or  maltha. 

1.  Simple  calcarious  cement  includes  those  kinds  of  mortar 
which  are  employed  in  land  building,  and  consists  of  lime,  sand, 
and  fresh  water. 

Calcarious  earths  are  converted  into  quick  lime  by  burning, 
which  being  wetted  with  water,  falls  into  an  impalpable  powder, 
with  great  extracation  heat ;  and  if  in  this  state  it  is  beat  with  sand 
and  water,  the  mass  will  concrete  and  become  a  stony  substance, 
which  will  be  more  or  less  perfect  according  to  its  treatment,  or 
to  the  quality  and  quantities  of  ingredients.  When  carbonated 
lime  has  been  thoroughly  burnt,  it  is  deprived  of  its  water,  and 


182 


BRICKLAYING. 


all  or  nearly  all  of  its  carbonic  acid.  Much  of  the  water,  during 
the  process  of  calcination,  being  carried  off  in  the  form  of  steam. 

Lime-stone  loses  about  four-ninths  of  its  weight  by  burning,  and 
when  fully  burnt  it  falls  freely,  and  will  produce  something  more 
than  double  the  quantity  of  powder  or  slacked  lime  in  measure, 
that  the  burnt  lime-stone  consisted  of. 

Quick  lime,  by  being  exposed  to  the  air,  absorbs  carbonic  acid 
with  less  or  greater  rapidity,  as  its  texture  is  more  or  less  hard ; 
and  this  by  continued  exposure,  becomes  unfit  for  the  composition 
of  mortar  :  and  hence  it  is  that  quick-lime  made  of  chalk,  cannot  be 
kept  for  the  same  length  of  time  between  the  burning  and  slacking, 
as  that  made  from  stone. 

Marble,  chalk,  and  lime-stone,  with  respect  to  their  use  in  ce- 
ments, may  be  divided  into  two  kinds,  simple  lime-stone,  or  pure 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  argillo-ferruginous  lime,  which  contains 
from  one-twentieth  to  one-twelfth  of  clay  and  oxide  of  iron,  previous 
to  calcination :  there  are  no  external  marks  by  which  these  can  be 
distinguished  from  each  other,  but  whatever  may  have  been  the 
colour  in  the  crude  state,  the  former,  when  calcined,  becomes 
white,  and  the  latter  more  or  less  of  an  ochery  tinge.  The  white 
kinds  are  more  abundant,  and  when  made  into  mortar,  will  admit 
of  a  greater  portion  of  sand  than  the  bsown ;  consequently,  are 
more  generally  employed  in  the  composition  of  mortar ;  but  the 
brown  lime  is  by  far  the  best  for  all  kinds  of  cement.  If  white, 
brown,  and  shell  lime  recently  slacked,  be  separately  beat  up 
with  a  little  water  into  a  stiff  paste  ;  it  will  be  found  that  the  white 
lime,  whether  made  from  chalk,  lime-stone,  or  marble,  will  not 
acquire  any  degree  of  hardness  ;  the  brown  lime  will  become  con- 
siderably indurated,  and  the  shell  lime  will  be  concreted  into  a 
firm  cement,  which,  though  it  will  fall  to  pieces  in  water,  is  well 
qualified  for  interior  finishings,  where  it  can  be  kept  dry. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  is  still  received  among 
our  modern  builders,  that  the  hardest  lime-stone  furnishes  the  best 
lime  for  mortar;  but  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Higgins  and  Mr. 
Smeaton,  have  proved  this  to  be  a  mistake ;  and  that  the  softest 


BRICKLAYING.  183 

chalk  lime,  if  thoroughly  burnt,  is  equally  durable  with  the  hardest 
stone-lime,  or  even  marble  :  but  though  stone  and  chalk  lime  are 
equally  good,  under  this  condition,  there  is  a  very  important 
practical  difference  between  them,  as  the  chalk  lime  absorbs  car- 
bonic acid  with  much  greater  avidity ;  and  if  it  is  only  partially 
calcined,  on  the  application  of  water  it  will  fall  into  a  coarse  pow- 
der, which  stone  lime  will  not  do. 

For  making  mortar,  the  lime  should  be  immediately  used  from 
the  kiln,  and  in  slacking  it,  no  more  water  should  be  allowed  than 
what  is  just  sufficient :  and  for  this  purpose,  Dr.  Higgins  recom- 
mends lime  water. 

The  sand  made  use  of  should  be  perfectly  clean  ;  if  there  is  any 
mixture  of  clay  or  mud,  it  should  be  divested,  of  either  or  both, 
by  washing  it  in  running  water.  Mr.  Smeaton  has  fully  shown  by 
experiment,  that  mortar,  though  of  the  best  quality,  when  mixed 
with  a  small  proportion  of  unburnt  clay,  never  acquires  that  hard- 
ness, which  without  this  addition,  it  speedily  would  have  attained. 
If  sea  sand  is  used,  it  requires  to  be  well  washed  with  fresh  water, 
to  dissolve  the  salt  with  which  it  is  mixed,  otherwise  the  cement 
into  which  it  enters,  never  becomes  thoroughly  dry  and  hard :  the 
sharper  and  coarser  the  sand  is,  the  stronger  is  the  mortar,  also  a 
less  proportion  of  lime  is  necessary.  It  is  therefore  more  profita- 
ble to' use  the  largest  proportion  of  sand,  as  this  ingredient  is  the 
cheapest  in  the  composition. 

The  best  proportion  of  lime  and  sand  in  the  composition  of 
mortar,  is  yet  a  desideratum. 

It  may  be  affirmed  in  general,  that  no  more  lime  is  required  to 
a  given  quantity  of  sand,  than  what  is  just  sufficient  to  surround 
the  particles,  or  to  use  the  least  lime  so  as  to  preserve  the  necessary 
degree  of  plasticity.  Mortar  in  which  sand  predominates,  requires 
less  water  in  preparing,  and  therefore  sets  sooner;  it  is  harder  and 
less  Uable  to  crack  in  drying,  for  this  reason,  that  lime  shrinks 
greatly  in  drying,  while  sand  retains  its  original  magnitude.  We 
are  informed  by  Vitruvius,  lib,  2.  c.  5.  that  the  Roman  builders 
allowed  three  parts  of  pit  sand,  or  two  of  river  or  sea  sand,  to  one 


184 


BRiCKLAYlNG. 


of  lime ;  but  by  Pliny,  (Hist.  Nat.  lib,  xxxvi.)  four  parts  of  coarse 
sharp  pit  sand,  and  only  one  of  lime.  The  general  proportion 
given  by  our  London  builders,  is  one  hundred  weight  and  a  half,  or 
thirty -seven  bushels  of  lime  and  two  loads  and  a  half  of  sand;  but 
if  proper  caution  were  taken  in  the  burning  the  lime,  the  quality 
of  the  sand,  and  in  tempering  tlie  materials,  a  much  greater  quan 
tity  of  sand  might  be  admitted. 

Mr.  Snieaton  observes,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  mortar,  that 
if  the  lime  be  well  burnt,  and  the  composition  well  beat  in  the 
making,  but  what  will  require  two  measures  of  sand,  to  one  oi 
unslacked  lime ;  and  it  is  singular,  that  the  more  the  mortar  is 
wrought  or  beat,  a  greater  proportion  of  sand  may  be  admitted. 
He  found  that  by  good  beating,  the  same  quantity  of  hme  would 
take  in  one  measure  of  tarras,  and  three  of  clean  sand,  which 
seems  to  be  the  greatest  useful  proportion. 

Dr.  Hitrgins  found  that  a  certain  proportion  of  coarse  and  fine 
sand,  improved  the  composition  of  mortar ;  the  best  proportion  ol 
ingredients,  according  to  experiment  made  by  him,  are  as  follow, 
by  measure  : 

Lime  newly  slacked       ...       1  part. 
Fine  sand      .       .       •       •       •       3  parts 
Coarse  sand  -       -       -       -       .       4  parts. 
He  also  found  that  an  addition  of  one-fourth  part  of  the  quantity 
of  lime,  of  burnt  bone  ashes,  improved  the  mortar  by  giving  the 
tenacity,  and  rendering  it  less  liable  to  crack  in  drying. 

The  mortar  should  be  made  under  ground,  and  then  covered  up 
and  kept  there  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  the  longer  the 
better;  and  when  it  is  used,  it  should  be  beat  up  afresh.  This 
makes  it  set  sooner,  renders  it  less  liable  to  crack,  and  more 
hard  when  dry. 

The  stony  consistence  which  it  acquires  in  drying,  is  owing  tn 
the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid,  and  a  combination  of  o  .rt  of  the 
water  with  the  lime :  and  hence  it  is  that  lime  that  has  been  long 
k«pt  after  barning,  is  unfit  for  the  purpose  of  mortar ;  for  in  the 
course  of  keenin^y,  -^o  iT^^ch  nrbonic  ncid  has  been  im^ii>ed,  as  to 


BRICKLAYING. 


185 


have  little  better  effect  in  a  composition  of  sand  and  water,  than 
chalk  or  lime-stone  reduced  to  a  powder  from  the  crude  state 
would  have  in  place  of  it. 

Grout  is  mortar  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  water  than  is 
employed  in  common  mortar,  so  as  to  make  it  sufficiently  fluid  to 
penetrate  the  narrow  irregular  interstices  of  rough  stone  walls. 
Grout  should  be  made  of  mortar  that  has  been  long  kept  and 
thoroughly  beat ;  as  it  will  then  concrete  in  the  space  of  a  day  ; 
whereas  if  this  precaution  is  neglected,  it  will  be  a  long  time 
before  it  set,  and  may  even  never  set. 

Mortar  made  of  pure  lime  sand  and  water,  may  be  employed  in 
the  linings  of  reservoirs,  and  aqueducts,  provided  that  it  has  suf- 
ficient time  to  dry ;  but  if  the  water  be  put  in  while  it  is  wet,  it 
will  fall  to  pieces  in  a  short  time,  and  consequently,  if  the  circum- 
stances of  the  building  are  such  as  render  it  impracticable  to  keep 
out  the  water,  it  should  not  be  used  ;  there  are,  however,  certain 
ingredients  put  into  common  mortar,  by  which  it  is  made  to  set 
immediately  under  water,  or  if  the  quick  lime  contain  in  itself  a 
certain  portion  of  burnt  clay,  it  will  possess  this  property. 

This  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  say  under  this  head  ;  what  re- 
lates to  mortars  employed  in  aquatic  buildings  will  be  treated  of 
under  water  cements. 

From  the  friable  and  crumbling  nature  of  our  mortar,  a  notion 
has  been  entertained  by  many  persons,  that  the  ancients  possessed 
a  process  in  making  their  mortar,  which  has  been  lost  at  the  pre- 
sent day ;  but  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Smeaton,  Dr.  Higgins^ 
and  others,  have  shown  this  notion  to  be  unfounded  ;  and  that 
nothing  more  is  wanting,  than  that  the  chalk,  lime-stone,  or  mar- 
ble, be  well  burnt  and  thoroughly  slacked  immediately,  and  to 
mix  it  up  with  a  certain  proportion  of  clean,  large-grained,  sharp 
sand,  and  as  small  a  quantity  of  water  as  will  be  sufficient  for 
woi'king  it;  to  keep  it  a  considerable  time  from  the  external  air, 
and  to  beat  it  over  again  before  it  is  used  ;  the  cement  thus  made 
will  be  sufficiently  hard. 

The  practice  of  our  modern  builders  is  to  spare  their  labour, 
Z 


186 


BJ  lICKL  VYING 


and  o  increase  the  quai  tity  of  materials  they  produce,  without 
anj  regard  to  its  goodness ;  ths  badness  of  our  modem  mortar 
is  td  be  attributed  both  to  the  fauUy  nature  of  the  materials,  and 
to  the  slovenly  and  hasty  methods  of  using  it.  This  is  remarkably 
instanced  in  London,  where  the  lime  employed  is  chalk  lime,  in- 
differently burnt,  conveyed  from  Essex  or  Kent,  a  distance  of  ten 
or  twenty  miles,  then  kept  many  days  without  any  precaution  to 
prevent  the  access  of  external  air :  now  in  the  course  of  this  time, 
it  has  absorbed  so  much  carbonic  acid  as  nearly  to  lose  its  cement- 
ing properties ;  and  though  chalk  lime  is  equally  good  with  the 
hardest  lime-stone,  when  thoroughly  burnt,  yet  by  this  treatment, 
when  it  is  slacked,  it  falls  into  a  thin  powder,  and  the  core  or 
unburnt  lumps  are  ground  down,  and  mixed  up  in  the  mortar,  and 
not  rejected  as  they  ought  to  be. 

The  sand  is  equally  defective,  consisting  of  small  globular 
grains,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  clay,  which  prevents  it 
from  drying,  and  attaining  the  necessary  degree  of  hardness. 

These  materials  being  compounded  in  the  most  hasty  manner, 
and  beat  up  with  water  in  this  imperfect  state,  cannot  fail  of  pro- 
ducing a  crumbling  and  bad  mortar.  To  complete  the  hasty  hash, 
screened  rubbish,  and  the  scraping  of  roads,  also  are  used  as  sub- 
stitutes  for  pure  sand. 

How  very  different  was  the  practice  of  the  Romans !  the  lime 
which  they  employed,  was  perfectly  burnt,  the  sand  sharp,  cleaned, 
and  large  grained  :  these  ingredients  were  mixed  in  due  proportion 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  the  mass  was  put  into  a  wooden 
mortar,  and  beat  with  a  heavy  wooden  or  iron  pestle,  till  the  com- 
position  adhered  to  the  mortar ;  being  thus  far  prepared,  they  kept 
it  till  it  was  at  least  three  years  old.  The  beating  of  mortar  is  of 
the  utmost  consequence  to  its  durability,  and  it  would  appear  that 
the  effect  produced  by  it,  is  owing  to  something  more  than  a  mere 
mechanical  mixture. 

Water  cements  are  those  which  are  impervious  to  water,  gene- 
rally made  of  common  water,  or  of  pure  lime  and  water,  with  the 


BRICKLAYING. 


187 


addition  of  some  other  ingredient  which  gives  it  the  property  ot' 
hardening  under  water. 

For  this  purpose,  there  are  several  kinds  of  ingredients  that  may 
be  used. 

That  known  by  the  name  of  pozzolana,  which  is  supposed  to 
consist  of  volcanic  ashes  thrown  out  of  Vesuvius,  has  been  long 
celebrated,  from  the  early  ages  of  the  Romans,  to  the  present  day. 
It  seems  to  consist  of  a  ferruginous  clay,  baked  and  calcined  by 
the  force  of  volcanic  fire ;  it  is  a  light,  porus,  friable  mineral,  of 
a  red  colour.  The  cement  employed  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  in  the 
construction  of  the  Eddystone  light-house,  was  composed  of  equal 
parts  by  measure,  of  slacked  aberthaw  lime  and  pozzolana ;  this 
proportion  was  thought  advisable,  as  this  building  was  exposed  to 
the  utmost  violence  of  the  sea  ;  but  for  other  aouatic  works  as 
locks,  basins,  canals,  dec.  a  composition  made  of  lime,  pozzolana, 
sand,  and  water,  in  the  following  proportion :  viz.  two  bushels  of 
slacked  aberthaw  lime,  one  bushel  of  pozzolana,  and  three  of 
clean  sand,  has  been  found  very  efiectual. 


§  33.  Description  of  Bricks, 

Bricks  are  a  kind  of  factitious  stone,  composed  of  argillaceous 
earth,  and  frequently  a  certain  portion  of  sand,  and  cinders  of 
sea-coal,  tempered  together  with  water,  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
burnt  in  a  kiln,  or  in  a  heap  or  stack  called  a  clamp. 

Bricks  are  first  formed  from  the  clay  into  rectangular  prisms, 
in  a  mould  of  ten  inches  in  length,  and  five  in  breadth  ;  and  when 
burnt,  usually  measure  nine  inches  long,  four  and  a  half  broad, 
and  two  and  a  half  thick :  so  that  a  brick  generally  shrinks  one 
inch  in  ten  ;  but  the  degree  of  shrinking  is  not  always  the  same, 
it  depends  upon  the  purity  and  tempering  of  the  clay,  and  also 
upon  the  burnmg. 

For  brick-making,  the  earth  should  be  of  the  purest  kind,  dug 


188 


BRICKLAYING. 


in  autumn,  and  exposed  during  the  winter's  frost ;  this  allows  the 
air  to  penetrate,  and  divide  the  earthly  particles,  and  facilitates  the 
subsequent  operations  of  mixing  and  tempering. 

To  make  real  good  bricks,  the  earth  should  be  dug  two  or  three 
years  before  it  is  used,  in  order  to  pulverize  it ;  and  should  be 
mixed  with  a  due  proportion  of  clay  and  sand,  as  too  much  argil- 
laceous matter  causes  the  bricks  to  shrink,  and  too  much  sand 
renders  them  heavy  and  brittle.  The  London  practice  of  mixing 
sea-coal  ashes,  and  in  the  country  light  sandy  earth,  not  only 
makes  tliem  work  easy  and  with  greater  despatch,  but  tends  also 
to  save  coals  or  wood  in  burning  them.  The  earth  should  be 
entirely  divested  of  stony  particles,  and  should  be  often  beat  or 
turned  over,  with  as  little  water  as  possible,  in  order  to  incorpo- 
rate the  soil  with  the  ashes  or  sand,  until  the  whole  be  converted 
into  an  uniform  paste ;  and  note,  that  too  much  water  prevents 
the  adhering  of  the  parts  ;  before  the  bricks  are  burnt,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  dry,  or  they  will  crack  and  crumble  in  the  burning. 

Bricks  made  of  good  earth,  well  tempered,  become  solid,  smooth, 
hard,  durable,  and  ponderous ;  but  require  half  as  much  more 
earth,  also  a  longer  jtiipe  in  drying  and  burning  them,  than 
common  bricks,  which  are  light,  spongy,  and  full  of  cracks. 
Bricks  are  either  burnt  in  clamps  or  kilns ;  the  former  is  the 
practice  about  London,  and  the  latter  in  the  country;  bricks  burnt 
in  kilns,  are  less  liable  to  waste,  require  less  fuel,  and  are  sooner 
burnt  than  in  clamps.  It  must  be  observed,  that  steeping  of  bricks 
in  water,  after  once  burning,  and  then  burning  them  afresh,  makes 
them  more  than  doubly  strong. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  bricks,  as  marls,  stocks,  and  place 
brick.  The  only  difference  in  making  them  is,  that  marls  are 
prepared  and  tempered  with  the  greater  care ;  the  construction 
of  the  clamp  is  the  same  for  each,  but  for  marls,  greater  care 
is  taken  not  to  over-heat  the  kiln,  but  that  it  burn  equally  and 
moderately,  and  as  diffusively  as  possible.  The  finest  kind  of 
marls  called  firsts,  are  selected,  and  used  as  cutting  bricks,  for 
arches,  over  doors,  windows,  and  quoins,  for  whicJa  they  are  gauged 


BRICKLAYING. 


189 


are  rubbed  to  their  proper  forms.  The  next  best  called  seconds, 
are  selected  and  used  for  principal  fronts. 

Marls  are  every  way  superior  to  stock  bricks,  not  only  in  co- 
lour, which  is  a  pleasant  pale  yellow,  but  also  in  point  of  smooth- 
ness  and  durability.  Hence  the  gray  stocks  are  an  inferior  kind, 
The  place  bricks,  or  as  they  are  otherwise  called  peckings,  and 
sometimes  sandal  or  semel  bricks,  are  those  that  are  left  of  the 
clamp  after  taking  away  the  rubbers  and  maris ;  their  inferior 
quality  is  occasioned  by  not  being  sufficiently  and  uniformly 
burnt :  they  also  differ  from  stock  bricks  in  being  of  a  redder 
colour,  and  of  a  more  uneven  texture.  Burrs  are  over-burnt 
brick,  sometimes  two  or  three  are  quite  vitrified  and  run  together. 
There  are  also  red  stocks ;  these  are  made  in  the  country,  and 
burnt  in  kilns  ;  the  best  kind  are  used  as  cutting  bricks,  and  are 
called  red  rubbers.  Fine  bricks  are  made  at  Hedgerly,  a  village 
near  Windsor,  and  are  therefore  also  called  Windsor  bricks. 
These  are  very  hard,  of  a  red  colour,  and  will  stand  the  utmost 
fury  of  the  fire ;  their  length  and  breadth  are  the  same  as  stock 
bricks,  but  their  thickness  is  only  about  one  inch  and  a  half. 
Bricks  are  sold  by  the  thousand.  Stock  and  place  bricks  made 
for  sale,  shall  not  be  less  than  eight  inches  and  a  half  long,  four 
inches  wide,  and  two  inches  and  a  half  thick,  when  burnt,  by  17 
Geo.  III.  cap,  69. 

Besides  the  bricks  of  our  own  manufacture,  Dutch  clinkers  are 
also  imported  for  the  purpose  of  paving  yards  and  stables.  These 
are  very  hard,  of  a  brimstone  colour,  and  almost  vitrified  in  burn- 
ing. They  are  about  six  inches  long,  three  broad,  and  one  thick, 
and  look  extremely  well  when  laid  herring-bone  ways. 

As  a  building  material,  bricks  have  several  advantages  over 
stone,  being  lighter,  and  from  their  porus  structure  they  unite 
better  with  the  mortar,  and  are  not  so  liable  to  attract  damp. 

Bricks  for  paving  floors,  also  called  paving  tiles,  are  of  several 
magnitudes,  and  are  made  of  a  stronger  clay.  The  largest  are 
about  twelve  inch^js  square,  and  one  and  a  half  in  thickness  ;  the 
second  are  about  nine  inches  square,  though  called  ten,  being 


190 


BRICKLAYING. 


formerly  so,  and  one  and  a  quarter  thick ;  these  may  be  rubbed 
smooth,  and  when  laid  diagonally,  have  a  very  pleasing  effect. 
Bricks  for  paving  are  about  nine  inches  long,  four  and  a  half 
broad,  and  one  and  a  half  thick. 

The  chief  covering  for  roofs  in  and  about  London  is  slate: 
however,  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  tiles  are  almost  uniformly 
used  for  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  in  some  instances  on  barns  j  tiles 
for  roofs  are  of  several  kinds,  as  pan  tiles,  plain  tiles,  ridge  tiles, 
and  hip  tiles.  Pan  tiles  are  about  13  inches  long,  8  inches  broad, 
and  about  half  an  inch  thick ;  their  transverse  section  is  a  figure  of 
contrary  curvature,  the  form  of  the  tile  being  two  portions  of  cylin- 
dric  surfaces  on  both  sides ;  the  part  which  is  of  the  greatest 
radius  serves  as  a  channel  for  discharging  the  rain  water,  and  the 
other  part,  which  is  of  much  less  radius,  serves  to  iap  over  the 
edge  of  the  adjoining  tile  :  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tile  projects  a 
knob  from  the  under  and  convex  side,  for  the  purpose  of  hanging 
it  to  the  laths.  The  laths  used  for  pan  tiles  are  about  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  one  and  a  quarter  broad,  made  of  deal.  Fie- 
mish  tiles  are  sometimes  imported  from  Holland;  they  are  very 
hard  and  durable,  and  are  glazed  of  a  leaden  colour. 


§  34.  Foundations, 

Having  dug  the  trenches  for  the  foundations,  the  ground  must 
be  tried  with  an  iron  crow,  or  with  a  rammer,  and  if  found  to  shake 
it  must  be  pierced  with  a  borer,  such  as  is  used  by  well  diggers : 
then  if  the  ground  proves  to  be  generally  firm,  the  loose  or  soft  parts 
If  not  very  deep,  must  be  excavated  until  a  solid  bed  appears ;  but 
observe  in  building  up  these  parts  that  the  bottom  of  the  excavation 
must  widen  upwards  in  a  gradual  slope,  in  the  direction  of  the 
trenchers,  in  form  of  a  series  of  steps,  whch  will  admit  of  a  firmer 
bed  for  the  stones,  so  that  they  will  have  no  tendency  to  slide,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  built  upon  inclined  planes :  and  thus  in  wet 
seasons,  the  moisture  in  the  foundations  would  induce  the  inclined 


BRICKLA^IiNG. 


191 


parts  to  slide,  and  descend  by  their  gravity  towards  the  lowest 
parts,  and  in  all  probability  would  fracture  the  walls,  and  endanger 
the  whole  fabric. 

If  the  ground  proves  soft  in  several  places  to  a  great  depth  under 
apertures,  and  firm  upon  the  sides  on  which  the  piers  between  the 
windows  of  the  superstructure  are  to  be  erected,  the  better  way  is 
to  turn  inverted  arches  under  the  apertures,  {see  Plate  XXVI.)  and 
indeed  at  all  times  where  there  is  sufficient  height  of  wall  below 
the  apertures  to  admit  of  il:.em,  it  is  a  necessary  precauf ion. 

For  the  small  base  of  the  piers  will  more  easily  penetrate  the 
ground  than  one  continued  base :  and  as  the  piers  are  permitted  to 
descend  in  a  certain  degree,  and  so  long  as  they  can  be  kept  from 
spreading,  will  carry  the  arch  along  with  them,  and  compress  the 
ground,^  which  will  therefore  re-act  against  the  under  sides  of  the 
inverted  arch,  which,  if  closely  jointed  will  not  yield,  but  act  with 
the  abutting  piers  as  one  solid  body.  On  the  contrary,  if  no 
inverted  arches  were  used,  the  low  piece  of  walling  under  the 
apertures  not  having  a  sufficient  vertical  dimension  would  give 
way  from  the  resistance  of  the  ground  upon  its  base,  and  thereby, 
not  only  fracture  the  spaces  of  brick^work  which  lie  vertical 
between  the  apertures,  but  breaks  the  sills  of  the  windows.  Where 
the  precaution  of  inverted  arches  is  omitted,  and  the  building  is 
weighty,  the  probability  of  the  event  of  fracturing  the  walls  is 
almost  certain ;  the  author,  who  has  had  great  practice  in  con- 
ducting buildings,  never  experienced  any  instance  to  the  contrary, 
in  the  numerous  buildings  in  which  he  has  been  concerned.  It  is 
therefore  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  throw  these  arches  with 
the  greatest  care ;  they  ought  not  to  be  less  in  height  than  half 
their  width,  and  as  a  parabolic  curve  is  very  easily  described,  it 
would  be  still  more  efi*ectual  in  resisting  the  re-action  of  the 
ground  than  one  of  uniform  curvature,  as  the  arc  of  a  circle;  the 
parabolic  arch  or  vault  being  the  form  adapted  more  nearly  to  the 
laws  of  uniform  pressure.  From  the  equality  of  the  curvature  of 
the  circle,  it  is  only  capable  of  resisting  a  uniform  pressure  upon 
all  points  directed  to  the  centre,  and  thus  a  cylindric  vessel  sur- 


192 


BRICKLAYING. 


rounded  with  water  is  a  proper  form  of  a  hollow  body  to  be  con. 
structed  of  the  least  quantity  of  materials,  or  at  the  least  expense. 

The  bed  of  the  piers  ought  to  be  as  uniform  as  possible,  for 
though  all  the  parts  of  the  bottom  of  the  trenches  may  be  very 
firm,  if  there  be  any  difference,  as  they  will  all  sink,  the  quantity 
which  they  will  give  will  be  according  to  the  softness  of  the 
ground,  therefore  the  piers  erected  upon  the  softer,  will  descend 
more  than  those  on  the  firmer  ground,  and  occasion  a  vertical 
fracture  in  the  building. 

If  the  hard  parts  of  the  foundation  are  only  to  be  found  under 
apertures,  then  build  piers  in  these  places,  and  instead  of  inverted 
arches  suspend  arches  between  the  piers.  In  the  construction  of 
the  arches  some  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  breadth  of  the  in- 
sisting pier,  whether  it  will  cover  the  arch  or  not :  for  suppose  the 
middle  of  the  piers  to  rest  over  the  middle  of  the  summit  of  the 
arches,  then  the  narrower  the  piers,  the  more  curvature  the  sup. 
porting  arch  ought  to  have  at  the  apex.  When  arches  of  suspen- 
sion  are  used,  the  intrados  ought  to  be  clear,  so  that  the  arch  may 
have  the  full  effect ;  but  as  observed  before,  it  will  also  be  requi- 
site here,  that  the  ground  be  uniformly  hard  on  which  the  piers 
are  erected,  for  the  reasons  already  given  ;  but  it  might  be  farther 
observed,  that  even  where  the  ground  is  not  very  hard  under  the 
piers,  if  it  is  but  uniform,  the  parts  will  descend  equally,  and  the 
building  will  remain  uninjured. 

If  the  foundation  be  not  very  insufficient,  it  may  be  made  good 
by  ramming  large  stones  closely  laid  with  a  heavy  rammer,  of  a 
breadth  at  the  bottom  proportioned  to  the  insisting  weight,  and 
this  breadth  in  ordinary  cases  may  project  a  foot  on  each  side  of 
the  wall,  then  another  course  may  be  laid  upon  this  so  as  to  bring 
the  upper  bed  of  the  stones  upon  a  general  level  with  the  trenches, 
and  to  project  about  eight  inches  on  each  side  of  the  wall,  or  to 
recede  four  inches  on  each  side  within  the  lower  course.  In  lay- 
ing of  these  courses,  care  should  be  taken  to  chop  or  hammer- 
dress  the  stones,  so  as  to  have  as  little  taper  as  possible,  and  to 
make  the  joints  of  the  one  course  fall  as  nearly  to  the  middle  of 


BRICKLAYING. 


193 


the  stones  in  the  adjoining  course  as  possible ;  and  this  principle 
must  be  strictly  adhered  to  in  all  walling  whatever;  and  though 
there  are  various  modes  of  disposing  stones  or  bricks,  the  end  is 
to  obtain  the  greatest  uniform  lap  upon  each  other,  throughout  the 
whole. 

If  the  foundation  is  very  bad,  the  whole  must  be  piled  as  already 
described  in  the  department  of  Carpentry. 


§35.  Walls. 

We  shall  now  suppose  that  the  ground  is  either  naturally  suf- 
ficient for  building  upon,  or  is  prepared  for  the  purpose  by  means 
similar  to  what  have  already  been  described  :  and  the  different 
qualities  of  mortar  and  bricks  being  also  described :  such  materials 
must  be  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  whole,  or  in  the 
different  parts,  as  are  sufficient  for  the  end  proposed ;  thus,  iu 
places  exposed  to  the  weather,  more  durable  materials  must  be 
employed  than  in  those  which  are  covered ;  but  in  this,  some  re- 
gard must  also  be  had  to  the  importance  of  the  fabric,  or  whether 
long  duration  may  be  required  or  not. 

When  you  slack  the  lime,  wet  it  only  with  so  much  water  as  is 
sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  a  powder,  and  only  about  a  bushel  at  a 
time,  covering  it  over  with  a  layer  of  sand,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
gas,  which  is  the  virtue  of  the  lime,  from  escaping.  The  best 
proportion  of  the  ingredients  of  lime  and  sand  for  mortar  has  been 
fully  specified,  but  in  ordinary  cases,  where  time  will  not  permit 
to  prepare  the  materials  to  the  best  advantage,  or  where  the  end 
proposed  would  not  be  a  compensation  for  the  expense,  about  two 
or  two  and  a  half  measures  of  sand  to  one  of  lime  may  be  used, 
but  even  this  proportion  will  not  always  hold,  for  some  lime  will 
require  more  and  some  less  sand ;  this  being  understood,  slack 
the  same  quantity  of  lime  alternately,  until  the  whole  is  made  ups 
this  is  a  better  mode  than  to  slack  the  whole  at  once,  as  the  ex- 
posure is  less  in  the  former,  than  in  the  latter  case. 

Nos.  13  &  14.  2  a 


194 


BRICKLAYING. 


Beat  your  mortar  with  the  beater  three  or  four  times  over  be 
fore  it  is  used,  so  as  to  incorporate  the  lime  and  sand,  and  to  break 
the  knots  that  pass  through  the  sieve  ;  this  will  not  only  render 
the  texture  uniform,  but  will  make  the  mortar  much  stronger  by 
permitting  the  air  to  enter  the  pores :  and  observe  here  also,  as 
we  have  before  stated,  to  use  as  little  waler  in  the  beating  as  pos- 
sible.  Should  the  mortar  stand  any  time  after  beating,  it  should 
be  beat  again  immediately  before  it  is  used,  so  as  to  give  tenacity 
and  to  prevent  labour  to  the  bricklayer.  In  summer  dry  hot  wea- 
ther use  your  mortar  pretty  soft,  but  in  winter  rather  stiff*. 

If  you  lay  your  bricks  in  dry  weather,  and  if  you  require  firm 
work,  you  must  use^ mortar  prepared  in  the  best  way,  and  before 
using  the  bricks,  they  must  be  wetted  or  dipped  in  water  as  they 
are  laid  on  the  wall,  but  in  moist  weather  this  will  be  unnecessary^ 
The  wetting  of  the  bricks  causes  them  to  adhere  to  the  mortar, 
whereas,  if  laid  dry,  and  covered  with  sand  or  dust,  they  will 
never  stick,  but  may  be  taken  off  without  the  adhesion  of  a  single 
particle  of  mortar. 

In  winter,  as  soon  as  the  frost  or  stormy  season  begms  to  set 
in,  the  walls  must  be  covered  ;  for  this  purpose  straw  is  usually 
employed,  and  sometimes  in  particular  buildings  a  capping  of 
weather  boarding,  in  form  of  a  stone  coping,  for  throwing  the 
water  equally  to  both  sides,  is  used ;  but  even  in  this  case,  it  would 
be  better  to  have  straw  under  the  wood,  which  would  be  still  a 
farther  proof  against  frost.  There  is  nothing  so  prejudicial  to  a 
building  as  alternate  rain  and  frost,  if  exposed  ;  for  the  rain  makes 
way  through  the  pores  into  the  heart  of  the  stone  and  mortar,  and 
when  the  freezing  comes  on,  the  water  is  converted  into  ice, 
which  expands  beyond  the  original  bulk  with  such  power,  that  no 
known  force  of  compression  is  capable  of  preventing  it  from  ex- 
pansion. In  consequence  of  this,  the  heaviest  stones  and  even 
the  largest  rocks  have  been  burst.  Though  this  is  the  cause  why 
buildings  decay  in  lapse  of  time,  yet  the  vertical  surfaces  exposed 
to  the  weather  suffer  but  in  an  incomparably  small  degree  to  hori- 
zontal surfaces  thus  exposed. 


BRICKLAYLNG. 


195 


In  working  up  the  -wall  it  would  be  proper  not  to  work  more 
than  four  or  five  feet  at  a  time,  for  as  all  walls  immediately- 
after  building  shrink,  the  part  which  is  first  brought  up  will  remain 
stationary,  and  when  the  adjacent  part  is  also  brought  up,  it  will 
shrink  in  altitude  by  itself,  and  consequently  will  separate  from 
the  other  which  has  already  become  fixed.  In  carrying  up  any 
particular  part,  the  ends  should  be  regularly  sloped  oflT  so  as  to 
receive  the  bond  of  the  adjoining  parts  on  the  right  and  left. 
There  is  nothing  that  will  justify  one  part  of  a  wall  being  carried 
higher  than  one  scaffold,  except  it  be  to  forward  the  carpenter  in 
some  particular  part,  or  the  like. 

In  brick  work  there  are  two  kinds  of  bond,  one  in  which  a  row 
of  bricks  laid  lengthways  in  the  length  of  the  wall,  is  crossed  by 
another  row  laid  with  their  breadth  in  the  said  length,  and  thus 
proceeding  to  work  up  the  courses  in  alternate  rows,  which  is 
called  English  bond.  The  courses  in  which  the  length  of  the 
bricks  are  disposed  in  the  length  of  the  wall  are  called  stretching 
courses,  and  the  bricks  themselves  are  called  stretchers.  The 
courses  in  which  the  length  of  the  bricks  run  in  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  are  called  heading  courses,  and  the  bricks  thus  dis- 
posed are  called  headers.  The  other  kind  of  brick  work  is  the 
placing  of  header  and  stretcher  alternately  in  the  same  course  ; 
this  disposition  of  the  bricks  is  called  Flemish  bond.  This  latter 
mode,  though  esteemed  the  most  beautiful,  is  attended  with  great 
inconveniences  in  the  execution,  and  in  most  cases  is  incapable 
of  uniting  the  parts  of  a  wall  with  the  same  degree  of  firmness  as 
the  English  bond 

ID  enter  mto  me  particular  merits  of  these  two  species  of  bond 
would  carry  this  department  beyond  its  allowed  limits  ;  the  reader 
who  wishes  farther  satisfaction  will  consult  the  explanation  of  the 
Plates,  and  an  ingenious  tract  on  Brich  Bond,  by  Mr.  G.  Saun 
ders,  where  the  defects  of  Flemish  bond,  and  the  superiority  of 
the  old  English  bond,  are  pointed  out  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner.  However,  it  may  be  proper  to  observe  in  general,  that 
vvhalever  advantages  are  gained  by  any  disposition  of  placmg  the 


196 


BRICKLAYING. 


bricks  in  Flcmioh  bond  in  the  particular  direction,  is  lost  in 
another :  thus,  if  an  advantage  is  gained  in  tying  a  wall  togethei 
in  its  thickness,  it  is  lost  in  the  longitudinal  bond,  and  the  contrary. 
In  order  to  remedy  this  inconvenience  in  thick  walls,  some  place 
the  bricks  in  the  core  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  pa- 
rallel to  each  other  throughout  the  length  of  each  course,  so  as  to 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the  succeeding  course :  but 
even  the  advantages  obtained  by  this  disposition  are  not  satisfactory, 
for  though  those  bricks  in  the  middle  of  the  core  have  sufficient 
bond,  yet  where  they  join  to  the  bricks  on  the  sides  of  the  wall, 
they  form  triangular  interstices,  and  therefore  the  sides  must  be 
very  imperfectly  tied  to  the  core. 


§  36.  Vaulting  and  Groining* 

DEFINITIONS. 

A  simple  vault  is  an  interior  concavity  extended  over  two  pa- 
rallel opposite  walls,  or  over  all  diametrically  opposite  sides  of 
one  circular  wall. 

The  concavity  or  interior  surface  of  the  vault  is  called  the  intrados. 

The  intrados  of  a  simple  vault  is  generally  formed  of  the  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  cylindroid,  or  sphere,  never 
greater  than  that  of  half  the  solid,  and  the  springing  lines  which 
terminate  the  walls  that  the  vauk  rises  from,  are  generally  straight 
lines,  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  or  cylindroid. 

When  the  vault  is  spherical,  the  circular  wall  terminates  in  a 
level  plane  at  top  from  which  the  vault  springs,  and  forms  either 
k  complete  hemisphere,  or  a  portion  of  the  sphere  less  than  the 
hemisphere. 

Conic  surfaces  are  seldom  employed  in  vaulting,  but  when  a 
conic  surface  is  employed  for  the  intrados  of  a  vault,  it  should  be 
semi-conic  with  a  horizontal  axis,  or  the  surface  of  the  whole  cone 
with  its  axis  vertical. 


BRICKLAYING. 


197 


All  vaults  which  have  a  horizontal  straight  axis,  are  called 
straight  vaults. 

All  vaults  which  have  their  axis  horizontal,  are  called  horizon- 
tal vaults. 

A  groin  is  the  excavation  or  hollow  formed  by  one  simple  vault 
piercing  another,  or  a  groin  is  that  in  which  two  geometrical  solids 
may  be  transversely  applied  one  after  the  other,  so  that  a  portion 
of  the  groin  will  have  been  in  contact  with  the  first  solid,  and  the 
remaining  part  in  contact  with  the  second  solid,  when  the  first 
is  removed.  The  most  usual  kind  of  groining  is  one  cylinder 
piercing  another,  or  a  cylinder  and  cylindroid  piercing  each  other, 
having  their  axis  at  right  angles. 

The  axis  of  each  simple  vault  forming  the  intrados  of  a  groin  is 
the  same  with  the  axis  of  the  geometrical  solids,  of  which  the  in- 
trados of  the  groin  is  composed. 

When  the  breadths  of  the  cross  pages  or  openings  of  a  groined 
vault  are  equal,  the  groin  is  said  to  be  equilateral. 

When  the  altitudes  of  the  cross  vaults  are  equal,  the  groin  is  said 
to  be  equi-altitudinal. 

Groins  have  various  names,  according  to  the  surfaces  of  the 
geometrical  bodies,  which  form  the  simple  vault. 

A  cylindric  groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
one  portion  of  a  cylinder  with  another. 

A  cylindroidic  groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  one  portion  of  a  sphere  with  another. 

A  spheric  groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
one  portion  of  the  sphere  with  another. 

A  conic  groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  one 
portion  of  a  cone  with  another. 

The  species  of  every  groin  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two 
vaults  of  unequal  heights,  is  denoted  by  two  preceding  words,  the 
former  of  which  ending  in  o,  indicates  the  simple  vault  which  has 
the  greater  height,  and  the  latter  ending  in  i  c  indicates  the  sim- 
ple vault  of  the  less  height. 

When  a  groin  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  unequal  cy 
p2 

t 


198 


BRICKLAYING. 


lindric  vaults,  it  is  called  a  cylindro-cylindric  groin,  and  each  arch 
so  formed  is  called  a  cylindro-cylindric  arch. 

When  a  groin  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  cyliridric  vault 
with  a  spheric  vault,  and  the  spheric  portion  being  of  greater 
height  than  the  cylindric  portion,  the  groin  is  called  a  sphero- 
cylindric  groin,  and  each  arch  forming  the  groin  is  called  a  sphe- 
ro-cylindric  arch. 

When  a  groin  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  cylindric  vault, 
with  a  spheric  vault,  and  the  spheric  portion  of  less  altitude  than 
the  cylindric  portion,  it  is  called  a  cylindro-spheric  groin ;  and 
each  arch  forming  the  groin  is  called  a  cylindro-spheric  arch. 

When  one  conic  vault  pierces  another  of  greater  altitude,  the 
groin  formed  by  the  intersection  is  called  a  cono-conic  groin  ;  and 
each  arch  forming  the  groin,  a  cono-conic  arch. 

A  rectangular  groin  is  that  which  has  the  axis  of  the  simple 
vault  in  two  vertical  planes,  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

A  multangular  groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  three  or  more 
simple  vaults  piercing  each  other,  so  that  if  the  several  solids 
which  form  each  simple  vault  be  respectively  applied,  only  one 
at  a  time  to  succeeding  portions  of  the  groined  surface,  every 
portion  of  the  groined  surface  will  have  formed  successive  conlftct 
with  certain  corresponding  portions  of  each  of  the  solids. 

An  equi-angular  groin  is  that  in  which  the  several  axes  of  the 
simple  vaults  form  equal  angles,  around  the  same  point,  in  the 
same  horizontal  plane. 


lV.S.B/trn,aTd,.  Seulp. 


F.  4 


BRICKLAYING. 


199 


§37.  EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  PLATES  IN 
BRICKLAYING. 

PLATE  XXIIL 

Fig.  1  the  brick  trowel. 
Fig.  2  the  brick  axe. 
Fig.  3  the  square. 
Fig.  4  the  bevel. 
Fig.  5  the  jointing  rule. 
Fig.  6  the  jointer. 
Fig.  7  the  hammer. 
Fig.  8  the  raker. 
Fig.  9  the  line  pins. 
Fig.  10  the  rammer. 
Fig.  11  the  pick  axe. 
Fig.  12  the  camber  slip. 

Fig.  13  the  banker,  with  the  rubbing  stone  placed  at  one  end 


PLATE  XXIV. 

Various  specimens  of  English  bond  according  to  the  different 
thicknesses  of  walls  ;  in  these  the  heading  and  stretching  courses 
mutually  cross  each  other  in  the  core  of  the  wall,  and  therefore 
produce  an  equality  of  strength. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  bond  of  a  nine  inch  wall :  here  as  well  as  in 
iho  following  it  must  be  observed,  that  as  the  longitudinal  extent 
of  a  brick  is  nine  inches,  and  the  breadth  four  and  a  half  inches, 
in  order  to  prevent  two  vertical  joints  from  running  over  each 
other  at  the  end  of  the  first  stretcher  from  the  corner,  after  placing 
the  return  corner  stretcher,  which  becomes  a  header  in  the  face 
that  the  stretcher  is  in  below,  and  occvpies  half  the  length  of 
this  stretcher ;  a  quarter  brick  is  placed  upon  the  side,  so  that  the 


BRICKLAYING. 

two  together  extend  six  inches  and  three  quarters,  and  leave  a  lap 
of  two  inches  and  a  half  for  the  next  header,  which  being  laid, 
lies  with  its  middle  upon  the  middle  of  the  header  below,  and  in 
this  manner  the  bond  is  continued.  The  brick-bat  thus  introduced 
next  to  the  corner  header  is  called  a  closer.  The  same  effect 
might  be  obtained  by  introducing  a  three-quarter  bat  at  the  corner 
in  the  stretching  course,  for  then  when  the  corner  header  comes 
to  be  laid  over  it,  a  lap  of  two  inches  and  a  quarter  will  be  left  at 
the  end  of  the  stretchers  below  for  the  next  header,  which  being 
Uid,  the  joint  below  the  stretchers  will  coincide  with  its  middle, 
and  in  this  manner  the  bond  may  be  continued  as  before. 

Fig.  2  a  fourteen  inch,  or  brick  and  half  wall.  In  this  the 
stretching  course  upon  the  one  side  is  so  laid,  that  the  middle  of 
the  breadth  of  the  bricks  in  the  heading  course  upon  the  opposite 
side  falls  alternately  upon  the  middle  of  the  stretchers,  and  upon 
the  joints  between  the  stretchers. 

Fig.  3  a  two  brick  wall.  In  the  heading  course,  every  alter- 
nate header  is  only  half  a  brick  thick  on  both  sides  in  order  to 
break  the  joints  in  the  core  of  the  wall. 

Fig.  4  a  two  brick  and  a  half  wall,  bricks  laid  as  in  Fig.  3. 


PLATE  XXV. 

Contains  various  specimens  of  Flemish  bond  according  to  the 
different  thicknesses  of  walls.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  bricks  in  the  courses  above. 

Fig.  1  a  nine  inch  wall  where  two  stretchers  lie  between  two 
headers,  the  length  of  the  headers  and  the  breadth  of  the  stretchers 
extending  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall. 

Fig.  2  a  brick  and  a  half  wall,  one  side  being  laid  as  in  Fig.  1, 
and  the  opposite  side,  with  a  half  header  opposite  to  the  middle  of 
the  stretcher,  and  the  middle  of  the  stretcher  opposite  the  middle 
of  the  end  of  the  header. 

Fig.  3  another  disposition  of  Flemish  bond  where  the  bricks 


I 


BRICKLAYING. 


201 


are  similarly  disposed  on  both  sides  ot  the  wall,  the  tail  of  the 
headers  being  placed  contiguous  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form 
square  spaces  in  the  corner  of  the  wall  for  half  bricks. 

Fig.  4  a  reversed  arch  supposed  to  come  under  a  window,  in 
t;ruer  to  prevent  the  fracturing  of  the  wall  under  the  lowest  win- 
dow. Arching  under  the  apertures  should  never  be  omitted  in 
any  building  whatever,  provided  there  be  room  ;  if  not,  pieces  of 
timbers  ought  to  be  laid,  so  as  to  present  the  most  inflexibihty  to 
the  ground,  and  make  the  wall  act  longitudinally  as  one  solid 
body. 

Fig.  5  supposed  to  be  the  case  where  the  ground  stands  firm 
under  the  apertures,  the  weight  of  the  pier  is  therefore  discharged 
from  the  soft  part  under  the  piers.  In  this  case  if  the  bond  of  the 
pier  is  good,  there  will  be  very  little  danger  of  the  wall  fracturing 
unde-  the  apertures. 


PLATE  XXVI. 

Fig.  1  part  of  the  upright  of  a  wall,  at  the  return,  laid  with 
Flemish  bond. 

Fig.  2  a  scheme  arch,  being  two  bricks  high. 

Fig.  3  a  semi-circular  arch  two  bricks  high. 

Fig.  4  a  straight  arch,  which  is  usually  the  height  of  four 
courses  of  brick  work  :  the  manner  of  describing  it  will  be  shown 
in  the  following  figure. 

Fig.  5.  To  draw  the  joints  of  a  straight  arch,  let  A  B  be  the 
width  of  the  aperture;  describe  an  equilateral  triangle  ABC  upon 
this  width  ;  describe  a  circle  around  the  point  C  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  brick.  Draw  D  E  parallel  to  A  B  at  a  distance  equal 
to  the  height  of  four  courses,  and  produce  C  A  and  C  B  to  D  and 
E.  Lay  the  straight  edge  of  a  rule  from  C  to  D,  and  with  a  pair 
of  compasses,  opened  to  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a 

brick,  cross  the  line  D  E  at  F,  removing  ihe  rule  from  the  points 
2  B 


202 


BRICKLAYING. 


C  and  D.  Place  the  straight  edge  against  the  points  C  and  l\ 
and  with  the  same  extent,  between  the  points  of  the  compass, 
cross  the  line  D  E  at  G  :  proceed  in  this  manner  until  you  come 
to  the  middle,  and  as  it  is  usual  to  have  a  brick  in  the  centre  to 
key  the  arch  in,  if  the  last  distance  which  we  will  suppose  to  be 
H  I  is  not  equally  divided  by  the  middle  point  K  of  D  E,  the  pro- 
cess must  be  repeated  till  it  is  found  to  be  so. 

Though  the  middle  brick  tapers  more  in  the  same  length  than 
the  extreme  bricks,  it  is  convenient  to  draw  all  the  bricks  with  the 
same  mould,  which  is  a  great  saving  of  time,  and  though  this  is 
not  correctly  true,  the  difference  is  so  trifling  as  not  to  affect  the 
practice.  It  may  however  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  real 
taper  of  the  mould  is  less  than  in  the  middle,  but  greater  than  ei- 
ther extreme  distance  :  but  even  the  difference  between  this  is  so 
small,  that  either  may  be  used,  or  taking  half  their  difference  W'U 
come  very  near  the  truth.  This  difference  might  easily  be  shown 
by  a  trigonometrical  calculation,  the  middle  being  an  isosceles 
triangle,  of  which  the  base  and  perpendicular  are  given,  the  base 
being  a  certain  part  of  the  top  line.  In  the  triangle  upon  the  sides 
you  have  one  angle  equal  to  60  degrees,  and  the  side  D  F  is 
given,  and  D  C  =  (D  K^XK  C^)  one  half,  can  easily  be  found, 
so  that  in  this  triangle  the  two  sides  and  the  contained  angle  are 
given. 

Fig.  6  an  elliptic  arch,  the  top  is  divided  into  equal  parts,  and 
not  the  underside. 


'UNI 


BRICKLAYING 


203 


PLATE  XXVII. 

Contairis  piers  of  various  substances  according  to  the  Flemish 
bond  disposition  of  bricks,  with  designs  of  brick  cornices. 

Fig.  1  a  pier,  two  brick  square :  No.  1.  the  bottom  course, 
No.  2.  the  upper  course. 

Fig.  2  a  two  and  a  half  brick  pier :  No.  1.  the  bottom  course, 
No.  2.  the  upper  course. 

Fig.  3  a  three  brick  pier :  No.  1.  the  bottom  course,  No.  2. 
the  upper  course. 

Fig.  4  a  three  and  half  brick  pier  :  No.  1.  the  bottom  course. 
No.  2.  the  upper  course. 


Ornamental  Brick  Cornices^ 

In  the  construction  of  any  thing  destined  to  answer  a  particular 
end,  it  frequently  happens  that  different  kinds  of  materials  may  be 
employed  for  the  purpose  :  it  is  evident  that  every  distinct  species 
of  material  will  require  its  own  peculiar  manner  of  treatment,  and 
the  sizes  of  the  parts  which  are  to  compose  the  thing  required, 
must  depend  upon  what  the  material  will  most  conveniently  admit 
of :  thus  brick,  wood,  stone,  or  iron,  may  be  employed  to  con- 
struct a  body  for  any  proposed  end  :  the  manner  of  working  these 
will  not  only  differ,  but  the  sizes  of  the  things  which  are  to  com- 
pose the  whole,  and  not  only  so,  but  sometimes  a  change  in  the 
general  form  also. 

In  brick  cornices,  from  the  various  kinds  of  bricks  and  tiles,  a 
variety  of  pleasing  symmetry  may  be  formed  by  various  disposi- 
tions  of  the  bricks,  and  frequently  without  cutting,  or  if  cut, 
chamfering  only  may  be  used. 

Fig.  5  a  cornice  in  imitation  of  the  Grecian  Doric. 

Fig.  6  a  dentil  cornice  ,  in  this  last  the  upper  member  is  cham- 
fered  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  moulding. 


'204 


BRICKLAYING. 


PLATE  XXVIII. 

Contains  groins  of  various  kinds. 

Fig.  1  a  semi-cylindric  equi-angular  groin,  the  centre  of  one 
vault  being  generally  boarded  in  without  any  regard  to  the  other, 
and  the  other  boarded  in  afterwards. 

Fig.  2  a  cylindroidic-cylindric  groin,  being  the  intersection  of 
a  cylinder  with  a  cylindroid. 

Fig.  3  a  cylindro-cylindric  groin,  being  the  intersection  of  one 
cylinder  with  another,  and  the  cylindro  vault  being  the  highest. 

Fig.  4  an  improvement  to  the  common  four-sided  groin,  by  Mr. 
Tappen,  Architect,  by  raising  the  angles  from  an  octagonal  pier, 
instead  of  a  square  one ;  by  this  means,  the  pier  may  be  made 
equally  strong,  by  giving  it  more  substance,  and  cutting  away  the 
angles  will  be  more  commodious  for  the  turning  any  kind  of  goods 
round  the  corner ;  this  may  therefore  be  looked  upon  as  a  very 
considerable  improvement  in  the  vaultings  of  cellars  of  warehouses. 
This  convenience  is  not  the  only  improvement  which  this  con- 
struction admits  of,  but  the  angles  of  the  groin  are  strengthened 
by  carrying  the  band  round  the  diagonals  of  equal  breadth,  which 
affords  better  bond  to  the  bricks,  which  are  usually  so  much  cut 
away,  that  instead  of  giving  support,  are  themselves  supported  by 
the  adjacent  fiUing-in  arches. 

Fig.  5  the  centreing  for  an  hexagonal  Gothic  groin,  such  as  are 
frequently  seen  in  chapter  houses. 

Fig.  6  the  piers  of  an  hexagonal  groin,  and  the  angles  obtunded 
according  to  the  plan  of  Mr.  Tappen.  This  construction  is  purely 
Gothic,  the  springers  would  cover  the  obtunded  parts  of  the 
groined  angles,  and  columnar  mouldings  those  of  the  piers. 


1  V.S  JjaniaJ-ii  Si-  ■ 


BRICKLAYmG. 


205 


PLATE  XXIX. 

The  method  of  cutting  the  bricks  for  a  cylindro-cylindric  arch, 
and  two  different  methods  for  the  joints  of  the  heads  of  niches. 

Fig.  1  the  cyhndro-cylindric  arch,  with  a  frame  of  wood  so 
constructed,  that  the  two  horizontal  pieces  have  their  outer  edges 
in  circles  concentric  with  the  circle  of  the  wall :  this  is  shown  by 
the  plan  of  the  wall  No.  2.  The  edges  of  the  circular  pieces  are 
graduated  with  divisions  perpendicularly  over  each  other,  A  B : 
No.  2,  is  a  rule  to  be  moved  vertically  along  the  said  concentric 
edges,  which  vertical  position  is  always  known  by  the  correspond- 
ing divisions ;  on  the  front  edge  of  the  rule  is  a  hook  projecting 
so  as  to  come  to  the  cylindric  surface  of  the  wall :  the  hook  is 
shown  at  No.  3,  with  a  part  of  the  rule.  The  use  of  this  machine 
is  for  drawing  the  edges  of  the  bricks  in  order  to  cut  them  to  the 
circle. 

Fig.  2  two  different  methods  of  forming  the  joints  for  the  heads 
of  spherical  niches.  In  the  right  hand  half  the  joints  run  hori- 
zontally, but  this  is  a  very  bad  method ;  as  all  the  beds  are 
conical,  the  bricks  at  the  summit  have  little  or  no  hold.  In  the  other 
half  the  joints  run  radially  in  planes  from  the  face  to  the  centre. 
The  work  is  not  only  more  firm  when  executed  by  this  last  me- 
thod, as  bedding  the  courses  on  planes,  but  much  more  easily 
executed  ;  nothing  is  more  difficult  to  form  than  conical  surfaces ; 
and  in  this  both  conical  and  spherical  surfaces  occur ;  whereas 
when  the  joints  run  radially,  only  the  spheric  surface  *  occurs, 
which  may  be  formed  by  one  bevel,  only  one  side  being  straight 
and  the  other  circular. 


206 


BRICKLAYING. 


PLATE  XXX. 

Shows  the  method  of  steening  wells. 

The  first  thing  is  to  make  a  centre,  which  consists  of  a  boarding 
of  inch  or  inch  and  a  half  stuff,  ledged  within  with  three  circular 
rings.  The  bricks  are  laid  between  these  rings,  and  all  headers. 
The  wide  joints  next  to  the  boarding  are  filled  in  with  tile  or 
broken  bricks.  Where  the  soil  is  firm,  centreings  are  not  ne- 
cessary, but  they  are  requisite  in  sandy  ground.  The  centreing 
remains  permanently  with  the  brick  work ;  as  the  well  digger  ex- 
cavates  the  soil,  the  first  centre  sinks,  then  a  second  centre  is 
made,  and  put  above  the  first,  and  built  in  with  brick  work  in  the 
same  manner :  and  thus  the  number  of  centreings  depend  on  the 
depth  of  the  well.  This  method  is  that  used  in  London  :  but  in 
the  country  other  methods  are  used.  One  is  with  several  rings 
of  timber  without  the  boarding :  they  first  build  upon  the  first 
ring,  four  or  five  feet,  then  a  second  ring,  and  build  again,  and  so 
on  to  the  depth  of  the  well.  This  however  is  not  so  good  a  method 
as  the  foregoing,  as  the  sides  of  the  brick  work  are  very  apt  to 
bulge,  particularly  if  great  care  be  not  taken  iji  filling  and  ram- 
ming the  sides  in  uniformly,  so  as  to  press  equally  at  the  same  time. 


Abstract  of  the  Building  Act,  as  far  as  regards  the  Bricklayer,  14 
Geo.  IIL  which  refers  only  to  London,  and  the  several  Parishes 
within  the  Bills  of  Mortality, 

Every  master  bricklayer  to  give  twenty-four  hours  notice  to 
the  Surveyor  of  the  district  from  the  first  to  the  seventh  rate, 
concerning  the  building  to  be  altered  or  erected  ;  but  if  the  build- 
ing is  to  be  piled  or  planked,  or  begun  with  wood,  it  becomes  the 
business  of  the  carpenter  to  give  such  notice. 

The  footings  of  the  walls  are  to  have  equal  projections  on  each 
side :  but  where  any  adjoining  building  will  not  admit  of  such 


# 


BRICKLAYING. 


^07 


projection  to  be  made  on  the  side  adjoining  to  such  building,  to 
be  done  us  near  as  the  case  will  admit  according  to  each  of  the 
four  rates* 

The  act  calls  every  front,  side,  or  end  wall,  (fee.  (not  being  a 
party. wall)  an  external  wall. 

The  timbers  in  each  rate  may  be  supposed  to  be  girders,  beams, 
or  trimming  joists,  &c.  and  their  bearing  in  all  cases,  and  in  all 
the  above  four  rates,  may  bo  as  much  as  the  nature  of  the  wall 
will  admit,  provided  there  is  left  four  inches  between  the  ends  of 
such  timber  and  the  external  surface  of  the  wall. 

The  joints  of  the  brick  work  may  also  be  shown,  and  may 
answer  to  the  express  number  of  bricks  of  which  such  wall  is  to 
be  composed. 

It  may  now  be  necessary  here  to  say  something  farther  relative 
to  external  walls. 

External  Walls, 

And  other  external  enclosures,  to  the  first,  second,  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  rate  of  building,  must  be  of  brick,  stone,  artificial  stone, 
lead,  copper,  tin,  slate,  tile,  or  iron  ;  or  of  brick,  stone,  artificial 
stone,  lead,  copper,  tin,  slate,  tile,  and  iron  together,  except  the 
planking,  piling,  &c.  for  the  foundation,  which  may  be  of  wood  of 
any  sort. 

If  any  part  to  an  external  wall  of  the  first  and  second  rate,  is 
built  wholly  of  stone,  it  is  not  to  be  less  in  thickness  than  as 
follows : 

First  rate,  fourteen  inches  below  the  ground  floor,  nine  inches 
above  the  ground  floor ;  second  rate  nine  inches  above  the  ground 
floor. 

Where  a  recess  is  meant  to  be  made  in  an  external  wall,  it 
must  be  arched  over,  and  in  such  a  manner,  as  that  the  arch  and 
the  back  of  such  recess  shall  respectively  be  of  the  thickness  of 
one  brick  in  length:  it  is  therefore  plain,  that  where  a  wall  is  not 
more  than  one  brick  thick,  it  cannot  have  any  recess. 

No  external  wall  to  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  rate,  is 


208 


BRICKLAYING. 


ever  to  become  a  party  wall,  unless  the  same  shall  be  of  the  height 
and  thickness  above  the  footing,  as  is  required  for  each  party- wail 
to  its  respective  rate. 

Of  Party  Walh. 

Buildings  of  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  rate,  which  are 
not  yet  designed  by  the  owner  thereof  to  have  separate  and  dis- 
tinct side  walls,  on  such  parts  as  may  be  contiguous  to  other 
buildings,  must  have  party-walls ;  and  they  are  to  be  placed  halt 
and  half  on  the  ground  of  each  owner,  or  of  each  building  re- 
spectively,  and  may  be  built  thereon,  without  any  notice  being 
given  to  the  owner  of  the  other  part ;  that  is  to  say,  the  first  builder 
has  a  right  so  to  do,  where  he  is  building  against  vacant  ground. 

Party-walls,  chimnies,  and  chimney  shafts  hereafter  to  be  built, 
must  be  of  good  sound  bricks  or  stone,  or  of  sound  bricks  and 
stone  together,  and  must  be  coped  with  stone,  tile,  or  brick. 

Party-walls  or  additions  thereto,  must  be  carried  up  thirteen 
inches  above  the  roof,  measuring  at  right  angles  with  the  back  of 
the  rafter,  and  twelve  inches  abov*3  the  gutter  of  the  highest 
building  which  gables  against  it ;  but  where  the  height  of  a  party, 
wall  so  carried  up,  exceeds  the  height  of  the  blocking  course  or 
parapet,  it  may  be  made  less  than  one  foot  above  the  gutter,  for 
the  distance  of  two  feet  six  inches  from  the  front  of  the  blocking 
course  or  parapet. 

Where  dormers  or  other  erections  are  fixed  in  any  flat  or  roof, 
within  four  feet  of  any  party-wall,  such  party- wall  is  to  be  carried 
up  against  such  dormer,  and  must  extend  at  least  two  feet  wider, 
and  to  the  full  height  of  every  such  dormer  or  erection. 

No  recess  is  to  Tse  hereafter  made  in  any  party-wall  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  rate,  except  for  chimney.flues,  girders, 
&c.  and  for  the  ends  of  walls  or  piers,  so  as  to  reduce  such  wall 
in  any  part  of  it  to  a  less  thickness  than  is  required  by  the  act, 
for  the  highest  rate  of  building  to  which  such  wall  belongs. 

No  openmg  is  to  be  made  m  any  party-wall  except  for  commu- 
nication from  one  stack  of  warehouses  to  another,  and  from  one 


BRICKLAYING. 


209 


staple  building  to  another,  all  which  communications  must  have 
wrought-iron  doors,  and  the  panels  thereof  are  not  to  be  less 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  to  be  fixed  in  stone  door-cases 
and  sills.  But  there  may  be  openings  for  passages  or  ways  on 
the  ground,  for  foot  passengers,  cattle,  or  carriages,  which  must 
be  arched  over  throughout  with  brick  or  stone,  or  brick  and  stone 
together,  of  the  thickness  of  a  brick  and  a  half  at  the  least,  to  the 
first  and  second  rate,  and  one  brick  to  the  third  and  fourth  rate. 
And  if  there  is  any  cellar  or  vacuity  under  such  passage,  it  is  to 
be  arched  ever  throughout  in  the  same  manner  as  the  passage 
over  it. 

No  party  wall  or  party  arch,  or  shaft  of  any  chimney,  new  or 
old,  must  be  cut  into,  other  than  for  the  purposes  as  follows  : 

If  the  fronts  of  buildings  are  in  a  line  with  each  other,  a  recess 
may  be  cut,  both  in  the  fore  and  back  fronts  of  such  buildings,  (as 
may  be  already  erected)  for  the  purpose  of  insertmg  the  end  of 
such  other  external  wall,  which  is  to  adjoin  thereto,  this  recess 
must  not  be  more  than  nine  inches  deep  from  the  outward  faces 
of  such  external  walls,  and  to  be  cut  beyond  the  centre  of  the 
party-wall  thereto  belonging. 

And  further,  for  the  use  of  inserting  bressummers  and  story 
posts,  that  are  to  be  fixed  on  the  ground  floor,  either  in  the  front 
or  back  wall,  the  recess  may  be  cut  from  the  foundation  of  such 
new  wall  to  the  top  of  such  bressummer,  fourteen  inches  deep 
from  the  outward  face  of  such  wall,  and  four  inches  wide  in  the 
cellar  story,  and  two  inches  wide  on  the  ground  story. 

And  further,  for  the  purpose  of  tailing-in  stone  steps,  or  stone 
landings,  as  for  bearers  to  wood  stairs,  or  for  laying-in  stone 
corbels  for  the  support  cf  chimney  jambs,  girders,  beams,  pur- 
lins, binding  or  trimming  joists,  or  other  principal  timbers. 

Perpendicular  recesses  may  also  be  cut  in  any  party-wall,  whose 

thickness  is  not  less  than  thirteen  inches,  for  the  purpose  of  insert. 

ing  walls  and  piers  therein,  but  they  must  not  be  wider  than  fifteen 

inches,  or  more  than  four  inches  deep,  and  no  such  recess  is  to 

be  nearer  than  ten  feet  to  any  other  recess. 
No.  14.     2  c 


210 


BRICKLAYING. 


All  such  cuttings  and  recesses  must  be  immediately  made  good, 
and  effectually  pinned  up,  with  brick,  stone,  slate,  tile,  shell,  or 
iron,  bedded  in  mortar. 

No  party-wall  to  be  cut  for  any  of  the  above  purposes,  if  the 
same  will  injure,  displace,  or  endanger  the  timbers,  chimnies, 
flues,  or  internal  finishings  of  the  adjoining  buildings. 

The  act  also  allows  the  footing  to  be  cut  off  on  the  side  of  any 
party-wall,  where  an  independent  side-wall  is  intended  to  be  built 
against  such  party-wall. 

When  any  buildings  (inns  of  court  excepted)  that  are  erected 
over  gate-ways  or  public  passages,  or  have  different  rooms  and 
floors,  the  property  of  different  owners,  come  to  be  rebuilt,  they 
must  have  a  party-wall,  with  a  party  arch  or  arches  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  brick  and  a  half  at  least,  to  the  first  and  second  rate, 
and  of  one  brick  to  the  third  and  fourth  rate,  between  building 
and  building,  or  between  the  different  rooms  and  floors,  that  are 
the  property  of  different  owners. 

All  inns  of  court  are  excepted  from  the  regulation  as  above,  and 
are  only  necessitated  to  have  party-walls,  where  any  room  or 
chamber  communicates  to  each  separate  and  distinct  stair-case, 
and  which  are  also  subject  to  the  same  regulations  as  respect 
other  party-walls. 

If  a  building  of  a  lower  rate  is  situated  adjoining  to  a  building 
of  a  higher  rate,  and  any  addition  is  intended  to  be  made  thereto, 
the  party-wall  must  be  built  in  a  such  a  manner,  as  is  required  for 
the  rate  of  such  higher  rate  of  building  as  adjoinmg. 

When  any  party-wall  is  raised,  it  is  to  be  made  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  wall  is  of,  in  the  story  next  below  the  roof  of  the  high- 
est building  adjoining,  but  it  must  not  be  raised  at  all,  unless  it 
can  be  done  with  safety  to  such  wall,  and  the  building  adjoining 
tnereto. 

Every  dwelling  house  to  be  built,  which  contains  four  stories 
m  height  from  the  foundation,  exclusive  of  rooms  in  the  roof, 
must  have  its  party-wall  built  according  to  the  third  rate,  although 
such  dwelhng-house  may  be  of  the  fourth  rate. 


BRICKLAYING. 


211 


And  every  dwelling-house  to  be  built  in  future  which  exceeds 
four  stories  in  height,  from  the  foundations,  exclusive  of  the 
rooms  in  the  roof,  must  have  its  party-wall  built  according  to  the 
first  rate,  although  such  house  may  not  be  of  the  first  rate. 

Chimnies,  iSfC, 

No  chimney  is  to  be  erected  on  timber,  except  on  the  piling, 
planking,  &c.  of  the  foundations  of  building. 

Chimnies  may  be  built  back  to  back  in  party.walls  ;  but  in  that 
case,  they  must  not  be  less  in  thickness  from  the  centre  of  such 
party. wall  than  as  follows : 

First  rate,  or  adjoining  thereto,  must  be  one  brick  thick  in  the 
cellar  story,  and  half  a  brick  in  all  the  other  stories. 

Second,  third,  and  fourth  rate,  or  adjoining  thereto,  must  be 
three-quarters  of  a  brick  thick  in  the  cellar  story,  and  half  a  brick 
in  all  the  upper  stories. 

Such  chimnies  in  party-walls  as  do  not  stand  back  to  back,  may 
be  built  in  any  of  the  four  rates  as  follows  : 

From  the  external  face  of  the  party-wall  to  the  inward  face  of 
the  back  of  the  chimney  in  the  cellar  story,  one  brick  and  a  half 
thick,  and  in  the  upper  stories,  one  brick  thick  from  the  hearth 
to  twelve  inches  above  the  mantel. 

Those  backs  of  chimnies  which  are  not  in  party-walls  to  the 
first  rate,  must  not  be  less  than  a  brick  and  a  half  thick  in  the 
cellar  story,  and  one  brick  thick  in  every  other  story,  and  to  be 
from  the  hearth  to  twelve  inches  above  the  mantel. 

If  such  chimney  is  built  against  any  other  wall,  the  back  may 
bo  half  a  brick  thinner  than  that  which  is  above  described. 

Those  backs  of  chimnies  which  are  not  in  party-walls  of  the 
second,  third,  and  fourth  rate,  must  be  in  every  story  one  brick 
thick  at  least,  from  the  hearth  to  twelve  inches  above  the  mantel. 

These  backs  may  be  also  half  a  brick  thinner,  if  such  chimnej 
is  built  against  any  other  wall. 

All  breasts  of  chimnies,  whether  they  are  in  paity.walls  or  not, 


212 


BRICKLAYING. 


are  not  to  be  less  than  one  brick  thick  in  the  cellar  story,  and 
half  a  brick  thick  in  every  other  story. 

All  withs  between  flues  must  not  be  less  than  half  a  brick  thick. 

Flues  may  be  built  opposite  to  each  other  in  party-walls,  but 
they  must  not  approach  to  the  centre  of  such  wall  nearer  than  two 
mches. 

All  chimney  breasts  next  to  the  rooms,  and  chimney  backs 
also,  and  all  flues,  are  to  be  rendered  or  pargetted. 

Backs  of  chimnies  and  flues  in  party-walls  against  vacant 
ground,  must  be  lime  whited,  or  marked  in  some  durable  manner, 
but  must  be  rendered  or  pargetted  as  soon  as  any  other  building  is 
erected  to  such  wall. 

No  timber  must  be  over  the  opening  of  any  chimney  for  sup- 
porting the  breast  thereof,  but  must  have  a  brick  or  stone  arch,  or 
iron  bar  or  bars. 

All  chimnies  must  have  slabs  or  foot  paces  of  stone,  marble, 
tile,  or  iron,  at  least  eighteen  inches  broad,  and  at  least  one  foot 
longer  than  the  opening  of  the  chimney  when  finished,  and  such 
slabs  or  foot  paces  must  be  laid  on  brick  or  stone  trimmers  at  least 
eighteen  inches  broad  from  the  face  of  the  chimney  breast,  except 
there  is  no  room  or  vacuity  beneath,  then  they  may  be  bedded  on 
the  ground. 

Brick  funnels  must  not  be  made  on  the  outside  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth  rate,  next  to  any  street,  square,  court, 
road,  or  way,  so  as  to  extend  beyond  the  general  line  of  the 
buildings  therein. 

No  funnel  of  tin,  copper,  iron,  or  other  pipe  for  conveying 
smoke  or  steam,  must  hereafter  be  fixed  near  any  public  street, 
square,  court,  or  way,  to  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  rate, 
and  no  such  pipe  is  to  be  fixed  on  the  inside  of  any  building 
nearer  than  fourteen  inches  to  any  timber,  or  other  combustible 
material  whatever. 


INDEX 


AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

BRICKLAYING. 

N.  B.  This  Mark  §  refers  to  the  'preceding  Sections^  according  ?« 
th^  Number. 


A. 

Act,  Building,  page  206. 
Arches,  §  37.    See  Plate  XXV. 
Arris  Ways,  tiles  laid  diagonally. 
Axis  of  a  Vault,  §  36. 

B. 

Banker,  §  19,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig,  13.* 

Bed  of  a  Brick,  the  horizontal  surfaces  as  disposed  in  a  wall. 

Bedding  Stone,  §  22. 

Bevel,  §  24,  37.    See  Plate  X^ll.  Fig.  A. 

Bond,  §  35. 

Bone  Ashes,  §  32. 

Borer,  §  34. 

Boss,  a  short  trough  for  holding  water,  when  tiling  the  roof ;  it  is 
hung  to  the  lath. 

Brick  Axe,  §  28,  37.    Se^.  Plate  XXIII.  Fig,  2. 

Ci2 


214 


BRICKLAYL\G. 


Brick  Trimmer,  a  brick  arch  abutting  upon  the  wooden  trimmei 
under  the  slab  of  the  fire  place,  to  prevent  the  communication 
of  fire. 

Brick  Trowel,  §  4,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig,  I. 
Bricklaying,  §  1. 
Bricks,  §  33. 
Building  Act,  §  38,. 

C. 

Camber  Slip,  §  20,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig,  12. 
Cements,  §  32. 

Centering  to  Groins.    See  Plate  XXVIII.' 
Chopping  Block,  §  30. 
Clamp,  §  33. 

Clinkers,  hard  bricks  imported  from  Holland,  §  33. 

Closer,  a  brick-bat  inserted  where  the  distance  will  not  permit  of 

a  brick  in  length.    See  Plate  XXIV. 
Compass,  §  12. 
Conic  Surfaces,  §  36. 
CoNo-coNic  Arch,  §  36. 
CoNo-coNic  Groin,  §  36. 

Course,  a  horizontal  row  of  bricks  stretching  the  length  of  a  wall. 

Cross  Passages,  §  36. 

Cutting  Bricks,  §  33. 

Cylindric  Groin,  §  36. 

Cylindro-cylindric  Arch,  §  36. 

Cylindro-cylindric  Groin,  §  36. 

Cylindro-spheric  Arch,  §  36. 

Cylindro-spheric  Groin,  §  36. 

Cylindroid,  §  36. 

Cylindkoid  Groin,  §  36 

D- 

Dutch  Clinkers,  §  33. 


BRICKLAYING. 


E. 

English  Bond,  §  35. 

EaUI-ALTITUDINAL  GrOIN,  §  36. 

Equi-angular  Groin,  §  36. 

F. 

Flemish  Bond,  §  35.    See  Plate  XXV. 
Flemish  Tiles,  §  33. 
Float  Stone,  §  31. 
Foundations,  §  34. 

6. 

Geometrical  Solid,  §  36. 
Grinding  Stone,  §  18. 
Groins,  §  36. 
Grout,  §  32. 

H. 

Hammer,  §  5  and  37.  5^ee  Plate  XXIII.  K^.  7 
Headers,  §  35. 

Heading  Courses,  §  35.    See  Plate  XXIV. 
Hemisphere,  §  36. 

Hexagonal  Groin.    See  Plate  XXVIII. 
Hod,  §  14. 

Horizontal  Vault,  §  36. 

L 

Intrados,  §  36. 
Inverted  Arches,  J  34, 
Iron  Crow,  §  17. 


2  ID 


BillCKLAYING. 


J. 

Jointer,  §  11,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.    Fig,  6. 
Jointing  Rule,  §  10,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  5 

K 

Kilns,  §  33 

L. 

Large  Square,  §  8. 

Lath,  small  slips  of  wood  nailed  to  rafters  for  hanging  the  tiles  oi 

slates  upon. 
Lathing  Hammer,  §  3. 
Laying  Trowel,  §  3. 
Level,  §  7. 
Lime,  §  32. 
Lime  Water,  §  32. 

Line  Pins,  ^  15,  37.    ^ee  Plate  XXIII.  Te^.  9. 

M. 

Marls,  §  33. 
Mortar,  §  32. 
Mould,  §  25. 

Mult-angular  Groin,  §  36 

O. 

Ornamental  Cornices.    See  Plate  XXVIL 

P. 

Pantile,  §  33. 
Pantile  Strike,  §  33. 
Paving  Tiles,  ^  33. 


BRICKLAYING. 


217 


Place  Bricks,  §  33. 
Plumb  Rule,  §  6. 
pozzolona,  §  32. 

R. 

Raker,  §  13,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  8. 
Rammer,  §  16,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig,  10. 
Rectangular  Groin,  §  36. 
Rod,  §  9. 

Rubbing  Stone,  §  21,  37.    See  Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  13. 

S. 

Sail-over,  is  the  overhanging  of  one  or  more  courses  beyond  the 

naked  of  the  wall. 
Saw,  §  27. 
Scribe,  §  26„ 
scurbage,  §  3. 
Simple  Vault,  §  36. 

Skew  Back,  the  sloping  abutment  for  the  arched  head  of  a  window. 
SoMMERiNG,  the  continuation  of  the  joints  of  arches  towards  a 

centre  or  meeting  point. 
Spheric  Groin,  §  36. 
Spheric  Vault,  §  36. 
Spheric-cylindric  Arch,  §  36. 
Sphero-cylindric  Groin,  §  36. 
Springing  Lines,  §  36. 
Square,  §  23,  37.    ^ee  Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  3. 
Steening  Wells.    See  Plate  XXX. 

Straight  Arches,  heads  of  apertures,  which  have  a  straight 
trados  in  several  pieces,  with  radiating  joints  or  bricks  tapering 
downwards. 

Straight  Vaults,  §  36. 

Stretchers,  §  35. 

Stretching  Courses,  §  35. 
2  D 


218 


BRICKLAYING. 


T 

Templet,  §  29. 
Tin  Saw,  §  27. 

Toothing,  bricks  projecting  at  the  end  of  a  part  of  a  wall,  in 

order  to  bond  a  part  of  the  said  wall  not  yet  carried  up. 
Trimmer,  See  Brick  Trimmer. 

V. 

Vaulting,  §  36. 

Walls,  §  35. 

Water  Cements,  §  32. 

Water  Table,  bricks  projecting  below  the  naked  of  a  wall,  in 
order  to  rest  the  upper  part  firo^y^ 


MASONRY. 


§  1.  Masonry  is  the  art  of  preparing  and  combining  stones  by 
such  a  disposition  as  to  tooth  or  indent  them  into  each  other,  and 
form  regular  surfaces  for  shelter,  convenience,  and  defence,  as 
the  habitation  of  men,  animals,  goods,  fortifications,  bridges,  se- 
paration of  property,  &c.  and  may  be  said  to  consist  either  of 
walling  or  arching. 

§2.  MASONS'  TOOLS 

The  tools  employed  by  the  mason,  are  different  in  different 
counties,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  stone  employed :  in 
some  counties  of  England  the  stone  is  soft,  with  so  little  grit  as  to 
be  wrought  by  planes  into  mouldings,  as  in  joinery  work ;  the 
naked  surfaces  of  a  building  are  generally  finished  with  an  instru- 
ment called  a  drag :  the  Bath  and  Oxfordshire  stone  is  of  this  de- 
scription. In  other  parts,  the  stone  is  so  hard  as  only  to  be 
wrought  by  a  mallet  and  chisel.  In  London,  the  value  of  stone 
occasions  it  to  be  cut  into  slips  and  scantlings  by  a  saw  ;  the  ope- 
ration is  done  by  a  labourer.  In  those  countries  were  stone 
abounds,  it  is  divided  into  smaller  scantlings,  by  means  of  wedges. 
In  most  descriptions  of  stone,  whether  hard  or  soft,  a  hammer  is 
employed  in  knocking  and  axing  off  the  prominent  parts.  Hard 
stone  and  marble  are  reduced  to  a  surface  by  means  of  a  mallet 
and  chisel.  In  rough  stone  from  the  quarry,  whore  the  saw 
has  not  been  employed,  a  narrow  chisel,  called  a  point,  aoout  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  at  the  entering  part,  is  first  used  ;  but  the  in 
equalities  of  sawn  stone  if  not  very  prominent,  are  reduced  b  / 


220 


MASONRY. 


mecins  of  an  inch  chisel,  and  sometimes  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  quantity  to  be  wrought  off.  Chisels  are  from  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  to  three  inches  in  breadth,  at  the  cutting  part :  those  of 
the  greatest  breadth  are  called  tools,  and  employed  finally  on  the 
surface,  which  is  more  regular  after  having  gone  over  it,  than  that 
left  after  the  operation  of  a  narrow  chisel.  When  the  surface  is 
wrought  into  narrow  furrows  or  channels  at  regular  distances,  like 
small  flutings  which  completes  the  finish  of  the  face,  the  operation 
is  called  tooling,  and  the  surface  itself  is  said  to  be  tooled.  When 
the  surface  is  required  to  be  smoothed,  it  is  done  by  rubbing  it 
with  a  flat  stone  of  the  same  kind  with  sand  and  water,  and  the 
larger  the  stone  the  more  regular  will  the  surface  be. 

The  form  of  masons'  chisels  is  like  that  of  a  wedge,  the  cuttmg 
edge  is  the  vertical  angle ;  they  are  wholly  constructed  of  iron, 
except  the  steel  end,  which  enters  the  stone.  The  end  which  is 
struck  by  the  mallet,  is  a  flat  portion  of  a  spheric  surface,  and 
projects  on  all  sides  beyond  the  handling  part,  which  tapers 
upwards  with  an  equal  concavity  on  each  side.  The  other  tools 
used  by  the  mason  are  a  level,  a  plumb  rule,  a  square,  a  bevel, 
a  trowel,  a  mallet,  a  hammer,  and  sometimes  a  pair  of  compasses. 
These  have  been  sufficiently  treated  under  the  former  departments 
of  Carpentry  and  Bricklaying,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 
The  saw,  as  has  been  observed,  though  an  appendage  of  Ma 
sonry,  is  used  by  the  labourer. 


§  3.  Of  Marbles  and  Stones. 

Marble  is  polished  by  being  first  rubbed  with  grit  stone,  after- 
wards  with  pumice  stone,  and  lastly  with  emery  or  calcined  tin. 
Marbles  with  regard  to  their  contexture  and  variegation  of  colour, 
are  almost  infinite  ;  some  are  black,  some  white,  and  some  of  a 
dove  colour ;  the  best  kind  of  white  marble  is  called  statuary, 
which  when  cut  into  thin  slices,  becomes  almost  transparent, 
which  orooertv  the  other  kinds  do  not  possess.    Other  species  of 


MASONRY. 


221 


marble  are  streaked  with  clouds  and  veins.  The  texture  of  mar- 
ble  is  not  altogether  understood,  even  by  the  best  workmen,  but 
they  generally  know  upon  sight,  whether  it  will  receive  a  polish 
or  not.  Some  marbles  are  easily  wrought,  some  are  very  hard, 
other  kinds  resist  the  tools  altogether.  Artificial  marble  or  scag- 
liola,  is  real  marble,  pulverized  and  mixed  with  plaster,  and  is 
used  for  columns,  baso  relievos,  and  other  ornaments. 

The  chief  kind  of  stone  used  in  London,  is  Portland  stone, 
which  comes  from  the  island  of  Portland  in  Dorsetshire ;  it  is 
used  for  buildings  in  general,  as  strings,  window  sills,  balusters, 
steps,  copings,  &c,  ;  but  under  great  weight  or  pressure,  it  is  apt 
to  splinter,  or  flush  at  the  joints.  When  it  is  recently  quarried,  it 
is  soft  and  works  easily,  but  acquires  great  hardness  in  length  of 
time.  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  Westminster  Bridge,  are  con- 
structed of  Portland  stone. 

Purbeck  stone  comes  from  an  island  of  the  same  name,  also  in 
Dorsetshire,  and  is  mostly  employed  in  rough  work,  as  steps  and 
paving. 

Yorkshire  stone  is  also  used  where  strength  and  durability  are 
requisites,  as  in  paving  and  coping. 

Ryegate  stone  is  used  for  hearths,  slabs,  and  covings. 

Mortar  is  used  Dy  masons  in  cementing  their  works.  This  haa 
already  been  fully  handled  under  the  bricklaying  department, 
which  the  reader  may  consult.  In  setting  marble  or  fine  work, 
they  use  plaster  of  Paris  ;  and  in  water  works,  tarras  is  employed. 

Tarras  is  a  coarse  mortar,  durable  in  water,  and  in  most  situa- 
tions. Dutch  tarras  is  made  of  a  soft  rock  stone,  found  near  Co- 
logne on  the  Rhine.  It  is  burnt  like  lime,  and  reduced  to  powder 
by  mills,  from  thence  carried  to  Holland,  whence  it  has  acquired 
the  name  of  Dutch  tarras.  It  is  very  dear,  on  account  of  the 
great  demand  there  is  for  it  in  aquatic  works. 

An  artificial  tarras  is  formed  of  two  parts  of  lime,  and  one  of 
plaster  of  Paris;  another  sort  consists  of  one  part  of  lime,  and  two 
parts  of  well-sifted  coal  ashes. 


222  BRICKLAYING. 

§  4.  Stone  Walls 

Are  those  built  of  stone,  with  or  without  cement  in  their  joints 
the  beading  joints  have  most  commonly  a  horizontal  position  in 
the  face  of  the  work,  and  this  ought  always  to  be  the  case  when 
the  top  of  the  wall  terminates  in  a  horizontal  plane  or  line:  in 
bridge  buildings,  and  in  the  masonry  of  fenced  walls  upon  inclined 
surfaces,  the  beading  joints  on  the  face  sometimes  foilov/  the  di- 
rection of  the  top  or  terminating  surface. 

The  footings  of  stone  v/alls  ought  to  be  constructed  of  large 
stones,  which  if  not  naturally  nearly  square  from  the  quarry 
should  be  reduced  by  the  hammer  to  that  form,  and  to  an  equal 
thickness  in  the  same  course,  for  if  the  beds  of  the  stones  of  the 
foundation  taper,  the  superstructure  will  be  apt  to  give  way,  by 
resting  upon  mere  angles  or  points,  or  upon  inclined  surfaces  : 
the  courses  of  the  footing  ought  to  be  well  bedded  upon  each  other 
with  mortar  ;  and  all  the  upright  joints  of  an  upper  course  should 
break  joint,  that  is,  they  should  fall  upon  the  solid  part  of  the 
stones  in  the  lower  course,  and  not  upon  the  joints. 

The  following  are  methods  practised  in  laying  the  footings  of  a 
stone  foundation  :  when  the  walls  are  thin,  and  stones  can  oe  go. 
conveniently,  that  their  length  may  reach  across  each  course, 
from  one  side  of  the  wall  to  the  other,  the  setting  of  each  course 
with  whole  stones  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  is  to  be  preferred. 
But  when  the  walls  are  thicker,  and  bond  stones  in  part  can  only 
be  conveniently  procured,  then  every  other  succeeding  stone  in 
the  course,  may  be  a  whole  stone  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall ; 
and  every  other  interval  may  consist  of  two  stones  in  the  breadth, 
that  is,  placing  the  header  and  stretcher  alternately,  like  Flemish 
bond  in  nine  inch  brick  work.  But  when  bond  stones  cannot  be 
had  conveniently,  every  alternate  stone  should  be  in  length  two- 
thirds  of  the  breadth  of  the  footing  upon  the  same  side  of  the  wall; 
then  upon  the  other  side  of  the  wall  a  stone  of  one-third  of  the 
breadth  of  the  footing,  should  be  placed  opposite  to  one  of  two- 
ihirds,  and  one  of  two-thirds  opposite  to  one  of  one-third  :  so  that 


BRICKLAYING. 


^23 


the  stones  may  be  placed  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
other  side. 

In  broad  foundations  where  the  stones  cannot  be  procured  for  a 
length  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  foundation,  then  build  them  alter- 
nately,  with  the  joints  on  the  upper  bed  of  each  footing,  so  that  the 
joint  of  every  two  stones  may  fall  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  length  of  one  or  of  each  adjoining  stone,  observing  to 
dispose  the  stones  on  each  side  of  every  footing. 

A  wall  which  is  built  of  unhewn  stone,  laid  with  or  without 
mortar,  is  called  a  rubble  wall :  they  are  of  two  kinds,  coursed 
and  uncoursed;  the  most  kind  of  rubble  is  the  uncoursed,  of 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  stones  are  crude  as  they  came  out  of 
the  quarry,  and  a  little  hammer  dressed.  This  kind  of  walling  is 
very  inconvenient  for  the  building  of  bond  timbers,  but  if  they  are  to 
be  preserved  to  plugging,  the  backing  must  be  levelled  at  every 
height  in  which  the  bond  timbers  are  disposed. 

The  best  kind  of  rubble  is  the  coursed ;  the  courses  are  all  of 
accidental  thicknesses,  adjusted  by  a  sizing  rule,  the  stones  are 
either  hammer  dressed  or  axed:  this  kind  of  work  is  favourable 
for  the  disposition  of  bond  timbers  ;  but  as  all  buildings  constructed 
either  in  whole  or  in  part  of  timber  are  liable  to  be  burnt,  strong 
well  built  walls  should  never  be  bonded  with  timber,  but  should 
rather  be  plugged,  for  if  such  a";cident  takes  place,  the  walls  will 
be  less  liable  to  warp. 

Walls  faced  with  squared  stones,  hewn  or  rubbed,  and  backed 
with  rubble,  stone,  or  brick,  are  called  ashlar  :  the  medium  size 
of  each  ashlar  measures  horizontally  in  the  face  of  the  wall  obout 
twenty-eight  or  thirty  inches,  in  the  altitude  twelve  inches,  and  in 
the  thickness  eight  or  nine  inches.  The  best  figure  of  stones  for 
an  ashlar  facing  are  formed  like  truncated  wedges,  that  is  to  say, 
they  are  thinner  at  one  end  than  at  the  other  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  though  level  on  the  beds;  so  that  when  the  stones  of  one 
course,  or  part  of  a  course,  are  shaped  in  this  manner,  and  alike 
situated  to  each  other,  the  backs  of  the  course  will  form  an  indenta- 
tion, like  the  teeth  of  a  joiner's  saw,  but  more  shallow  in  proportion 


224 


MASONRY. 


to  the  length  of  a  tooth :  the  next  course  has  its  indentations 
found  in  the  same  way,  and  the  stones  so  selected  that  the  upright 
joints  break  upon  the  sohd  of  the  stones  below.  By  these  means 
the  facing  and  backing  are  toothed  together,  and  unquestionably 
stronger  than  if  the  back  of  each  ashlar  had  been  parallel  to  the 
front  surface  of  the  wall ;  as  the  stones  are  mostly  raised  in  the 
quarries  of  various  thicknesses,  in  an  ashlar  facing  it  would  con- 
tribute greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  work,  to  select  the  stones  in 
each  course,  so  that  every  alternate  ashlar  may  have  broader 
beds  than  those  of  every  ashlar  placed  in  each  alternate  interval. 

In  every  course  of  ashlar  facing,  bond  stones  should  be  intro- 
duced,  and  their  number  should  be  proportional  to  the  length 
of  the  course  ;  this  should  be  strictly  attended  to  in  long  ranges 
of  stones,  both  in  walls  without  apertures,  and  in  the  courses  that 
form  wide  piers ;  when  they  are  wide,  every  bond  stone  of  one  course 
should  fall  in  the  middle  of  every  two  bond  stones  in  the  course 
below.  In  every  pier  where  the  jambs  are  coursed  with  the  other 
ashlar  in  front,  and  also  in  every  pier  where  the  jambs  are  one 
entire  height,  every  alternate  stone  next  to  the  aperture  in  the  former 
case,  and  every  alternate  stone  next  to  the  jambs  in  the  latter  case, 
should  bond  through  the  wall,  and  also  every  other  stone  should 
be  placed  lengthways  in  each  return  of  each  angle,  not  less  than 
the  average  length  of  an  ashlar.  Bond  stones  should  have  no 
taper  in  their  beds,  the  end  of  every  bond  stone,  as  well  as  the 
end  of  every  return  stone,  should  never  be  less  than  a  foot,  there 
should  be  no  such  thing  as  a  closer  permitted,  unless  it  bond 
through  the  wall.  All  the  uprights  or  joints  should  be  square,  or 
at  right  angles  to  the  front  of  the  wall,  and  may  recede  about 
thrce-fourths  of  an  inch  from  the  face  with  a  close  joint  from  the 
face,  with  a  close  joint  from  thence,  gradually  widening  to  the 
back,  and  thereby  make  hollow  wedge-formed  figures,  which  will 
give  sufficient  cavities  for  the  reception  of  packing  and  mortar. 
Both  the  upper  and  lower  beds  of  every  stone  should  be  quite 
level,  and  not  form  acute  angles  as  is  often  the  case ;  the  joints 
from  the  face  to  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  within  the  wall, 


MASONRY. 


should  either  !)0  cemented  with  fine  nriortar,  or  with  a  mixture  of 
oil,  putty,  and  white  lead  :  the  former  is  the  practice  both  in  Lon- 
don and  Edinburgh,  and  the  latter  in  Glasgow.  The  putty  cement 
will  stand  longer  than  most  stones,  and  will  remain  prominent 
when  the  face  of  the  stones  has  been  corroded  with  nge.  The 
whole  of  the  ashlar,  except  that  mentioned  of  the  joints  towards 
the  face  of  the  wall,  the  rubble  work  and  the  core  should  be  sei 
and  laid  in  the  best  mortar,  and  every  stone  should  be  laid  on  its 
natural  bed.  All  wall-plates  should  be  placed  upon  a  number  of 
bond  stones,  and  particularly  those  of  the  roof  where  there  are  no 
tie-beams,  by  which  means  they  may  either  be  joggled  upon  the 
bonds,  or  fastened  to  them  by  iron  and  lead. 

In  building  walls  or  insulated  pillars  of  very  short  horizontal 
dimensions  not  exceeding  the  length  of  stones  that  can  be  easily 
procured,  every  stone  should  be  quite  level  on  the  bed,  without 
any  degree  of  concavity,  and  should  be  one  entire  piece,  between 
every  two  horizontal  joints.  This  should  be  particularly  attended 
to  in  piers,  where  the  insisting  weight  is  great,  otherwise  the  stones 
will  be  in  danger  of  splintering,  and  crushing  to  pieces,  and  per- 
haps occasion  a  total  demolition  of  the  fabric. 

Vitruvius  has  left  us  an  account  of  the  manner  of  constructing 

the  walls  of  the  ancients,  which  was  as  follows:  the  Riticulated, 

is  that  wherein  the  joints  run  in  parallel  lines,  making  angles  of 

forty  degrees  each,  with  the  horizon  in  contrary  ways,  and  con. 

sequently  the  faces  of  the  stones  form  squares,  of  which  cue 

diagonal  is  horizontal,  and  the  other  vertical.    This  kind  of  wall 

was  much  used  by  the  Romans  in  his  time.     The  Incertam 

wall  was  formed  of  stones  of  which  one  direction  of  thu  joints  was 

horizontal,  and  the  other  vertical :  but  the  vertical  joints  of  the 

alternate  courses  were  not  always  arranged  in  the  same  straight 

line,  all  that  they  regarded  was,  to  make  them  break  joint :  this 

manner  of  walling  was  used  by  the  Romans  antecedent  to  the  time 

of  Vitruvius,  who  directs  that  in  both  the  reticulated  and  incertain 

walls,  instead  of  filling  the  space  between  the  sidas  with  rubble 

promiscuously,  they  should  be  strengthened  with  abutments  ot 
Nos.  15  &  16.    2  E 


226 


MASONRY. 


hewn  stone  or  brick,  or  common  flints,  built  in  cross  walls 
two  feet  thick,  and  bound  to  the  facing  and  backing  with 
cramps  of  iron.  The  Emplection  consisted  of  two  sides  or  shells 
of  squared  stone,  with  alternate  joints,  and  rubble  core  in  the 
middle. 

The  walls  of  the  Greeks  were  of  three  kinds,  named  Isodomum, 
Pseudisodomum  and  Emplection.  The  Isodomum  had  the  courses 
all  of  an  equal  thickness,  and  the  other  called  Pseudisodomum 
had  the  courses  unequally  thick ;  in  both  these  walls,  when- 
ever  the  squared  work  was  continued,  the  interval  or  cere  was 
filled  up  with  common  hard  stones  laid  in  the  manner  of  bricks 
with '  alternate  joints.  The  Emplection  was  constructed  wholly 
of  squared  stones,  in  these  bond  stones  were  placed  at  regular 
intervals,  and  the  stones  in  the  intermediate  distance  were  laid 
with  alternate  joints  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  face 
so  that  this  manner  of  walling  must  have  been  much  stronger  than 
the  emplection  of  the  Roman  villages.  This  is  a  most  strong 
and  durable  manner  of  walling,  and  in  modern  tin\es  it  may  be 
practised  with  the  utmost  success,  but  in  the  common  run  of 
buildings  it  would  be  too  expensive. 


§  5.  Stairs. 

When  stairs  are  supported  by  a  wall  at  both  ends,  nothing  dif- 
ficult  can  occur  in  the  construction,  in  these  the  inner  ends  of  the 
steps  may  either  terminate  in  a  solid  newel,  or  to  be  tailed  into  a 
wall  surrounding  an  open  newel ;  where  elegance  is  not  required, 
and  v/here  the  newel  does  not  exceed  two  feet  six  inches.  The 
ends  of  the  steps  may  be  conveniently  supported  by  a  solid  pillar, 
but  when  the  newel  is  thicker,  a  thin  wall  sarrounding  the  newel 
would  be  cheaper. 

In  the  stairs  of  a  basement  story,  where  there  are  geometrical 
stairs  above,  the  steps  next  to  the  newel  ure  generally  supported 
uuon  a  dwarf  wall. 


MASONRY. 


227 


§  6.  Geometrical  Stairs. 

Have  the  outer  end  fixed  in  the  wall,  and  one  of  the  edges  of 
every  step  supported  by  the  edge  of  the  step  below,  and  con- 
structed  with  joggled  joints,  so  that  they  cannot  descend  in  the 
inclined  direction  of  the  plane,  nor  yet  in  a  vertical  direction,  the 
sally  of  every  joint  forms  an  exterior  obtuse  angle,  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  upper  step,  called  a  back  rebate,  and  that  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  lower  step  of  course  an  interior  one,  and  the  joint 
formed  of  these  sallies  is  called  a  joggle,  which  may  be  level  from 
the  face  of  the  risers,  to  about  one  inch  within  the  joint.  Thus 
is  the  plane  of  the  tread  of  each  step  continued  one  inch  within 
the  surface  of  each  riser,  the  lower  part  of  the  joint  is  a  narrow 
surface,  perpendicular  to  the  inclined  direction  or  soffit  of  the 
stair  at  the  end  next  to  the  newel. 

In  stairs  constructed  of  most  kinds  of  stone,  the  thickness  of 
every  step  at  the  thinnest  place  of  the  end  next  to  the  newel,  has 
no  occasion  to  exceed  two  inches,  for  steps  of  four  feet  in  length, 
that  is,  by  measuring  from  the  interior  angle  of  every  step  per- 
pendicular to  the  rake.  The  thickness  of  steps  at  the  interior 
angle,  should  be  proportioned  to  the  length  of  the  step;  but  allow- 
ing that  the  thickness  of  the  steps  at  each  interior  angle  is  suffi- 
cient at  two  inches,  then  will  the  thickness  of  steps  at  the  interior 
angles  be  half  the  number  of  inches  that  the  length  of  the  steps 
has  in  feet :  thus  a  step  five  feet  long,  would  be  two  inches  and  a 
half  at  that  place. 

The  stone  platforms  of  geometrical  stairs,  viz.  the  landings, 
half  paces  and  quarter  paces,  are  constructed  of  one,  two,  or 
several  stones,  according  as  they  can  be  procured.  When  the 
platform  consists  of  two  or  more  stones,  the  first  platform  stone  is 
laid  upon  the  last  step  that  is  set,  and  one  end  tailed  in  and  wedged 
into  the  wall ;  the  next  platform  stone  is  joggled  or  rebated  into 
one  set,  and  the  end  also  fixed  into  the  wall,  as  that  and  the  pre. 
ceding  steps  are,  and  every  stone  in  succession,  till  the  platform 
IS  completed.    If  there  is  occasion  for  another  flight  of  steps,  the 


228 


MASOiNRY, 


last  platform  becomes  a  spring  stone  for  the  next  step,  tlie  joint  is 
to  be  joggled  as  well  as  all  the  succeeding  steps,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  first  flight. 

Geometrical  stairs  executed  in  stone  depend  upon  the  following 
principle  :  that  every  body  must  at  least  be  supported  by  three 
points,  placed  out  of  a  straight  line  ;  and  consequently,  if  two 
edges  of  a  body  in  diflTerent  directions  be  secured  to  another  body, 
the  two  bodies  will  be  immoveable  in  respect  to  each  other.  This 
last  is  the  case  in  a  geometrical  stair,  one  end  of  a  stair  stone  is 
always  tailed  into  the  wall,  and  one  edge  either  rests  on  the  ground 
itself,  or  on  the  edge  of  the  preceding  stair  stone,  whether  the 
stair  stone  be  a  plat  or  step.  The  stones  forming  a  platform,  are 
generally  of  the  same  thickness  as  those  forming  the  steps. 


§  7.  JL  short  Account  of  the  Origin  of  the  Arch,  and  Authors  who 
may  he  consulted. 

The  arch  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  useful  inventions  that  ever 
took  place  in  the  art  of  building ;  by  it  we  are  enabled  to  cross 
the  deepest  rivers  and  valleys,  and  places  which  are  rendered 
impassable  by  rocks  or  precipitous  banks.  In  such  situations, 
without  its  aid,  goods  conveyed  by  inland  navigation,  or  by  any 
other  means,  could  never  obtain  the  same  celerity  of  transportation, 
nor  have  been  conducted  at  so  easy  a  rate  of  expense.  By  the 
use  of  the  arch  we  are  enabled  to  build  apartments  secure  from 
fire,  to  cover  apertures  where  it  would  be  impossible  to  lintle 
them  with  stone,  and  to  support  walls  or  their  tops  almost  to  any 
height. 

The  theory  of  the  equilibrium  of  arches  depends  on  the  deepest 
principles  of  mathematical  science.  Those  who  are  desirous  of 
obtaining  the  fundamental  part  of  the  art  of  building  arches,  will 
do  well  to  consult  the  fifth  article  of  Emerson^s  Miscellanies^  and 
Hutton^s  and  GwlWs  Principles  of  Arches,  and  for  a  knowledge  of 
the  practice,  it  will  be  well  to  peruse  a  work  in  French,  by  Per- 


MASONRY. 


229 


ronet,  which  has  gained  him  great  reputation,  as  containing  the 
whole  result  of  his  experience  in  the  practice  of  building  bridges 
and  arches :  also  a  work  by  Semple,  containing  many  excellent 
practical  remarks;  there  are  other  authors,  but  those  here  spoken 
of,  have  acquired  the  most  celebrity. 

Arches  are  to  be  found  in  the  Greek  theatres.  Stadia  and 
Gymnasia,  some  of  them  erected  probably  400  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  most  ancient  arches  of  which  we  have  any 
thing  like  dates,  are  the  Cloaca  at  Rome,  begun  by  Tarquinius 
Priscus.  The  emperor  Adrian  threw  a  bridge  over  the  Cephisus 
between  the  territories  of  Attica  and  Elusis,  on  the  most  frequented 
road  of  Greece.  The  ancient  bridges  at  Rome  were  eight  in 
number :  the  most  considerable  of  which  was  the  Pons  jElius,  now 
the  bridge  of- Santo  Angelo.  There  are  several  other  Roman 
bridges  in  and  out  of  Italy,  but  the  most  celebrated  was  that 
erected  over  the  Danube  by  the  emperor  Trajan,  the  span  of  the 
arches  is  supposed  to  have  been  170  feet  each :  but  even  this  is 
considerably  surpassed  in  horizontal  extent  by  the  ancient  bridge 
of  Brioude  in  France,  consisting  only  of  one  arch  of  181  feet  span. 
Several  of  the  French  bridges  are  remarkable  for  the  great  extent 
of  the  arches.  The  bridge  of  Neuilly,  built  by  M.  Perronet  over 
the  Seine,  consists  of  five  elliptic  arches,  each  128  feet  span, 
composed  of  eleven  arcs  of  circles,  of  different  radii.  The  mosi 
considerable  arch  in  Great  Britain,  is  that  over  the  river  TatF, 
near  Llantrissent  in  Glamorganshire,  consisting  of  one  arch  of 
140  feet  span  :  the  curve  is  the  arc  of  a  circle  of  175  feet  diame- 
tey.  Sarah,  or  Island  bridge  over  the  Liffey,  above  Dublin, 
consists  of  one  arch  of  lOG  feet  span.  The  bridges  at  Westmin- 
ster, and  Blackfriars,  London,  though  among  the  boldest  and  finest 
undertakings  of  modern  times,  have  their  arches  of  less  horizontal 
extension  than  those  above  mentioned ;  the  arches  of  the  former 
are  semi-circular,  the  central  one  is  seventy-six  feet  diameter  or 
span.  The  arches  of  the  latter  are  nearly  elHptic,  nine  in  number, 
and  the  central  one  is  100  feet  wide,  and  the  arches  on  each  side 

decrease  regularly  to  the  land  piers. 
r2 


230 


MASONRY. 


PLATE  XXXI. 

Observations  on  the  customary  Problems  in  Masonry  respecting 
Arches,  and  Methods  of  describing  Elliptic  Arches, 

The  operation  of  describing  an  ellipse  with  a  string,  though 
true  in  principle,  is  useless  in  practice,  as  the  string  stretches  in 
such  a  degree  as  not  to  be  depended  on,  and  the  degree  of  ten- 
sion is  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  string,  which  is  therefore 
unfit  to  be  used  for  describing  the  curve  of  an  arch  of  large  ex- 
tent. The  trammel  or  elliptic  compass  is  a  very  accurate  instru- 
ment, but  it  can  only  be  used  for  works  upon  a  small  scale  :  this 
method  of  description  will  be  found  in  Problem  V.  Geometry.  The 
description  of  an  ellipse  with  a  beam  compass  may  be  put  in  exe- 
cution in  arches  of  any  extent,  as  has  been  fully  verified  in  the 
practice  of  that  distinguished  French  engineer,  M.  Perronet.  But 
the  common  method  with  three  centres  only  is  extremely  lame, 
owing  to  the  sudden  variation  of  curvature,  which  takes  place  at 
the  junction  of  two  very  different  radii. 


Pkob.  I.  To  render  the  Compass  Method  useful,  not  only  in  describ- 
ing the  Curve,  but  in  finding  the  Joints  perpendicular  thereto,  so 
as  to  form  an  Arch  which  shall  not  have  any  sensible  variation  in 
Practice  from  the  true  Elliptic  Curve,  nor  in  the  Perpendicularity 
of  the  Joints. 

Find  a  number  of  points  in  the  curve  equidistant  on  each  side  of 
Ihe  extremity  of  the  conjugate  axis  :  find  the  centre  of  a  circle  pass- 
ing  the  middle  point,  and  the  other  two  points  one  on  each  side  of 
it:  join  the  centre  with  the  last  two  points  of  the  curve,  and  describe 
an  arc  through  the  three  points ;  then  to  complete  the  half  curve, 
join  one  of  the  next  points  of  the  curve  and  the  end  of  the  arc  by 
a  straight  line  ;  or  suppose  these  two  points  to  be  joined,  and 


MASONRY. 


231 


bisect  this  line  by  a  perpendicular,  which  produce  until  it  meet 
the  first  of  the  radii :  join  the  last  point  of  the  curve,  and  the  con- 
co.irse  of  the  two  last  radii :  from  the  point  of  concourse  describe 
an  arc  from  the  end  of  the  arc  last  described  to  the  next  point  ifi 
the  curve  ;  proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  next  succeeding  arcs, 
if  more  than  two,  until  the  last  arc  but  one,  is  described  :  continue 
ihe  last  arc  until  it  meet  a  diameter  parallel  to  the  transverse 
axis  :  draw  a  line  from  the  meeting  of  the  arc  and  diameter 
through  the  extremity  of  the  transverse  axis,  and  produce  this  line 
till  it  meets  the  arc ;  from  the  point  where  the  line  meets  the 
arc  draw  a  line  to  the  centre  of  the  arc ;  from  the  point  where 
the  line  so  drawn  cuts  the  transverse  axis  as  a  centre,  describe  an 
arc  from  the  end  of  the  arc  last  described  to  the  extremity  of 
the  transverse  axis. 

Example^  Fig.  1«  Let  A  B  be  the  transverse  axis,  and  C  D 
the  semi-conjugate. 

Draw  E  D  parallel  to  A  C  and  A  E  parallel  to  C  D.  Divide 
C  A  and  A  E  each  into  three  equal  parts  at  the  points  /,  g,  h,  L 
Produce  D  C  to  X  making  C  X  equal  to  C  D.  Draw  X  /  Z  and 
X  g  k,  also  hk  d  and  il  d,  then  the  points  k  and  I  will  be  in  the 
curve,  bisect  the  distance  Z  D  at  right  angles  by  m  n  meeting  D 
X  produced  at  n.  Join  Z  «  cutting  A  C  at  j/.  The  points  t  and  u 
being  on  the  line  or  semi-transverse  C  B,  make  C  t  equal  to  C  y, 
and  draw  n  t  v.  From  n  with  the  distance  n  D  or  w  Z,  describe 
the  arc  Z  D  v.  Bisect  the  distance  A;  Z  by  a  perpendicular  o  y 
meeting  I  n  at  p.  From  p  with  the  distance  p  I  describe  the  arc 
/  k  q.  Draw  p  q  parallel  to  A  B.  Join  q  A  which  produce  to 
meet  the  axclkq  'mr\  also  join  r  p  cutting  A  B  in  ^.  From  g 
with  the  distance  g  r  describe  an  arc  r  A,  and  the  half  A  D  and 
part  of  the  other  half  D  u  of  the  arch  will  be  completed.  Make 
t  u  equal  to  fg,  n  s  equal  to  n  p.  Draw  suw.  From  *  describe 
the  arc  v  w,  and  from  u  describe  the  arc  w  B  which  will  complete 
the  other  half  of  the  arch. 


232 


xMASONRY. 


Prob.  II.  To  Jind  the  Joints  of  an  Elliptic  Arch  at  right  Angles  to 

the  Curve, 

Fig.  2.  Find  the  centres  p,  5,  g,  y,  t,  u  as  in  Problem  1., 
then  radiate  the  joints  between  D  and  v  by  the  centre  n,  the  joints 
between  v  and  w  by  the  centre  5,  and  the  joints  between  w  and  B 
by  the  centre  u,  and  the  other  half  of  the  arch  A  D  in  the  same 
manner,  or  thus : 

If  the  arch  A  D  B  is  described  with  a  trammel.  Take  the  semi- 
transverse  A  C,  and  from  D  describe  an  arc  cutting  C  A  at  F, 
and  another  cutting  C  B  at  F,  then  the  points  F,  F  are  called  the 
focii.  Now  to  draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  curve  from  any 
point  H.  Draw  H  K  F  and  H  L  F,  making  H  K  equal  to  H  L. 
From  K  and  L  as  centres,  describe  arcs  of  equal  radii  cutting 
each  other  at  I,  and  draw  I  H,  which  will  be  a  joint  at  the  required 
point  H.  In  <hc  same  manner  may  any  other  joint  i  h  or  as  many 
as  required  be  obtained. 


Prob.  hi.  To  describe  the  Parabolic  Arch,  and  thence  to  draw  the 
Joints  at  right  Angles  to  the  Curve. 

First,  to  draw  the  Curve, 

Fig.  3.  Let  C  D  be  the  abscissa  or  height  of  the  curve,  and 
E  B  the  base  or  a  double  ordinate.  Draw  A  E  parallel  to  C  D 
and  E  D  parallel  to  A  B.  Divide  C  A  and  A  E  each  into  the 
like  number  of  equal  parts.  Draw  t  a,  2  6,  3  c,  &;c.  parallel  to 
C  D ;  also  draw  1  D,  2  D,  3  D,  &c.  cutting  the  parallels  at  a,  6> 
c,  &;c.  which  are  points  in  the  curve,  then  the  curve  may  be 
drawn  with  a  bent  rule  through  the  points,  a,  5,  c,  &c.  and  the 
other  half  B  D  being  drawn  in  like  manner  will  complete  the 
whole  curve. 


F/nh'  X\'XII . 


MASONRY. 


233 


Secondly i  to  Jind  the  Joints. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  a  joint  to  any  point  E.  Join  E  B, 
which  bisect  at^;  draw  g  h  i  perpendicular  to  A  B  cutting  the 
curve  at  h :  make  h  i  equal  to  h  g,  and  join  E  i ;  draw  E  F  at  a 
right  angle  with  E  i  and  E  F  will  be  a  joint  at  right  angles  to  the 
curve.    In  the  same  manner  all  other  joints  may  be  obtained. 


PLATE  XXXII. 

With  respect  to  the  power  which  arches  have  of  supporting 
themselves,  It  depends  upon  the  load  insisting  on  all  points  of  the 
arch,  it  is  evident  that  there  may  be  such  a  relation  between  the 
curve  and  the  weight  on  every  point  of  it,  so  as  the  weight  may 
have  on  more  tendency  to  break  or  spring  the  arch  in  one  point 
than  another ;  and  it  is  evident,  that  if  the  materials  are  of  the 
same  specific  gravity,  that  the  wall  erected  at  a  given  height  upon 
the  arch  will  obtain  a  certain  form,  so  as  to  keep  the  arch  in 
equilibrio,  and  that  the  form  of  the  terminating  line  of  the  wall 
will  depend  on  the  curve  of  the  supporting  arch. 

Fig.  1.  If  the  intrados  of  the  arch  be  a  semi-circle,  or  semi- 
elliptic,  the  extrados  or  terminating  line  of  the  wall  will  be  a  curve 
running  upwards  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  make  the  two  vertical  lines 
which  are  tangents  at  the  extremes  of  the  arch  asmytotes  of  the 
curve,  and  consequently,  neither  the  semi-circular  nor  semi-ellip- 
tic  arch  are  adapted  to  bridge  building ;  and  it  may  be  pronounced 
with  safety,  that  though  these  curves  are  frequently  employed  in 
bridge  building,  were  the  materials  only  placed  in  contact  without 
cohesion  or  friction,  the  mass  supported  could  not  stand  when 
the  road  way  is  straight,  or  a  convex  curve  throughout  the  length 
of  the  arch,  and  that  it  is  only  in  consequence  of  friction  or  the 
cementing  quality  of  the  mortar  in  connecting  the  whole  of  the 
materials  in  one  mass,  that  such  arches  stand  for  so  many  centu- 
tries  as  they  are  found  to  do.  However,  by  employing  only  the 
2  F 


234 


MASOiNRY. 


middle  portions  of  these  curves,  a  road  way  or  extrados  of  tolera- 
bie  convenient  form  may  be  obtained. 

Fig.  3.  Is  an  arch  of  equilibration,  the  intrados  of  which  is 
parabolic,  which  requires  an  extrados  of  the  same  form  and 
curvature,  both  being  similar  and  equal.  The  vertical  heights 
between  the  two  are  everywhere  equal. 

Fig.  4  is  another  equilibrated  arch,  the  intrados  is  an  hyperbolio 
curve,  and  the  extrados  requires  a  curve,  such  that  the  vertical 
lines  between  the  two  curves  are  continually  less  from  the  crown 
towards  the  feet  of  the  arches. 

Fig.  5  is  another  equilibrated  arch,  the  intrados  being  a  cate- 
narian,  or  such  as  would  be  formed  with  a  heavy  chain  suspended 
at  its  extremities  from  two  points  at  less  distance  from  each  other 
than  the  length  of  the  chain  ;  the  extrados  to  this  curve  may  admit 
of  different  forms,  it  may  either  be  a  convex  curve,  as  when  the 
wall  erected  upon  it  is  low,  or  a  straight  surface  or  plane,  as  when 
the  wall  erected  on  it  is  enormously  high,  or  a  concave  curve, 
as  when  the  wall  is  still  higher :  neither  of  the  three  last  curves 
are  at  all  adapted  to  bridge  building,  the  extrados  line  at  a  mode- 
rate  height  of  wall  being  too  rapid  in  its  acclivity  and  declivity. 

Fig.  6  is  an  arch  of  equilibration,  where  the  top  is  a  straight 
line  :  the  intrados  at  a  given  height  of  wall  is  calculated  to  answer 
thereto,  this  arch  is  therefore  well  adapted  in  most  situations  for 
the  arch  of  a  bridge. 


INDEX 


AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

MASONRY. 

N.  B.  This  Mark  §  refers  io'the  preceding  Sections,  according  to 
the  Number* 

A. 

Abutments  of  a  Bridge,  the  walls  adjoining  to  the  land,  which 
support  the  ends  of  the  extreme  arches  or  road  way. 

Arch,  in  masonry,  is  a  part  of  a  building  suspended  over  a  hollow 
and  concave  towards  the  area  of  the  hollow  ;  the  top  of  the  wall 
or  walls  which  receives  the  first  area  stones  is  called  the  abut, 
ment  or  springing,  §  7. 

4RcravoLT  OF  THE  Arch  OF  A  Bridge,  is  the  curve  line  formed 
by  the  upper  sides  of  tho  arch  stones  in  the  face  of  the  work, 
or  the  archivolt  is  sometimes  understood  to  be  the  whole  set  of 
arch  stones  that  appear  in  the  face  of  the  work. 

Ashlar,  §  4. 

B. 

Banquet,  the  raised  footways  adjoining  to  the  parapet  on  the 
sides  of  a  bridge. 


236  MASONRY. 
Bath  Stone,  §  3. 

BatteRj  the  leaning  back  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face  of  a  wall, 

so  as  to  make  the  plumb  line  fall  within  the  base. 
Battardeatt,  or  Cofferdam,  a  case  of  piling  without  a  bottom, 

for  building  the  piers  of  a  bridge. 
Beds  of  a  Stone,  are  the  parallel  surfaces  which  intersect  the 

face  of  the  work  in  lines  parallel  to  the  horizon,  §  4. 
BoNDj  is  that  connection  of  lapping  the  stones  upon  one  another 

in  the  carrying  up  of  the  work,  so  as  to  form  an  inseparable 

mass  of  building. 
Bond  Stones,  stones  running  through  the  thickness  of  the  wall 

in  order  to  bind  it. 
Bond  Timbers,  §  4. 
BuiDGE  Buildings,  §  4. 

*jridge,  in  masonry,  is  an  edifice  or  structure,  consisting  of  one 
or  a  series  of  arches,  in  order  to  form  a  road  way  over  a  rive 
canal,  &c.  for  passing  the  same. 

Butments.    See  Abutments, 

C. 

Caisson,  a  chest  or  box  in  which  the  piers  of  a  bridge  are  built 
by  sinking  it  as  the  work  advances  till  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  bed  of  the  river,  and  then  the  sides  are  disengaged,  being 
constructed  for  the  purpose. 

Cfntres,  the  frames  of  timber  work  for  supporting  arches  during 
their  erection. 

Chest,  the  same  as  Caisson. 

C/rrsELs,  §  2. 

Coi  ferdam,  the  same  as  Battardeau 

D. 

Drag,  a  tliin  plate  of  steel  indented  on  the  edge,  like  Jhc  teeth  ol 
a  saw,  used  in  soft  stone  which  has  no  grit,  for  finishing  the 
surface.    A  piece  of  a  jomer's  hand-saw  makes  a  good  drag,  §  2. 


MASONRY.  237 

Drift,  the  horizontal  force  of  an  arch,  by  which  it  endeavours  to 

overset  the  piers. 
Dutch  Tarras,  §  3. 

E. 

Emi'lection,  §  4. 

Entrados  of  an  Arch,  the  exterior  or  convex  curve  or  the  top 
of  the  arch  stones  ;  the  term  is  opposed  to  the  intrados  or  con. 
cave  side. 

ExTRADos  OF  A  Bridge,  the  curve  of  the  road  way. 

F. 

Feis'ce  Walls,  those  used  to  prevent  the  encroachments  of  men 

or  animals. 
Figures  of  Stones,  §  4. 

Footings,  projecting  courses  of  stone  without  the  naked  of  the 
superincumbent  part,  in  order  to  rest  the  wall  firmly  on  its 
base,  §  4. 

G. 

Geometrical  Stairs,  §  6. 

H. 

Headers,  stones  disposed  with  their  length  horizontally  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall. 

L 

Impost  or  Springing,  the  upper  part  or  parts  of  a  wall  in  order 

to  spring  an  arch. 
Incertain,  §  4. 
Insulated  Pillars,  §  4. 

IsODOMUM,  §  4. 


238 


MASONRY. 


J. 

Jette,  the  border  made  round  the  stilts  under  a  pier. 

Joggled  Joints,  the  method  of  indenting  the  stones,  so  as  to 

prevent  the  one  from  being  pushed  away  from  the  other  by 

lateral  force,  §  6. 

K. 

Key  Stone  of  an  Arch,  the  stone  at  the  summit  of  the  arch,  put 

in  last  of  all,  for  wedging  and  closing  the  arch. 
Key-Stone,  the  middle  voussoir  of  an  arch  over  the  centre. 
Key-Stones,  used  in  some  places  for  bond  stones. 

L. 

Level,  horizontal  or  parallel  to  the  horizon. 
Level,  an  instrument,  the  same  as  that  used  in  bricklaying  and 
carpentry. 

M. 

Mallet,  the  implement  or  tool  which  gives  percussive  force  to 
the  chisel ;  in  figure  it  approaches  to  a  hemisphere,  with  a 
handle  projecting  from  the  middle  or  pole  of  the  convex  side,  J  2. 

Marble,  §  3. 

Masonry,  §  1. 

Mortar.    See  Bricklayings  §  32,  and  in  Masonry,  §  3. 

N. 

Naked  of  a  Wall,  is  the  vertical  or  battering  surface,  whence 
all  projectures  arise. 

O. 

Off  Set,  the  upper  surface  of  a  lower  part  of  a  wall  left  by  re- 
ducing the  thickness  of  the  superincumbent  part  upon  one  side 
or  the  oVher,  or  both. 

Oxfordshire  Stone,  §  2. 


MASONRY. 


239 


P. 

Parapets,  the  breast  walls  erected  on  the  sides  of  the  extrados 

of  the  bridge  for  preventing  passengers  from  falling  over. 
Paving,  a  floor  or  surface  of  stone  for  walking  upon. 
Piers,  the  insulated  parts  of  a  bridge  between  the  apertures,  or 

arches  for  supporting  the  arches  and  road  way. 
Piers  in  Houses,  the  walls  between  apertures,  or  between  an 

aperture  and  the  corner. 
Piles,  timbers  driven  into  the  bed  of  a  river,  or  the  foundation  of 

a  building  for  supporting  a  structure. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  §  3. 

Pitch  of  an  Arch,  the  height  from  the  springing  to  the  summit 
of  the  arch. 

Point,  the  narrowest  of  all  the  chisels,  and  used  in  reducing  the 

rough  prominent  parts  of  stone,  §  2. 
Portland  Stone,  §  3. 
pseudisodomum,  §  4. 
PuRBECK  Stone,  §  3. 

Push  of  an  Arch,  the  same  as  Drift,  which  see. 

Q. 

Quarry,  the  place  whence  stones  are  raised. 

R. 

Random  Courses  in  Paving,  unequal  courses  without  any  regard 

to  equi.distant  joints. 
Reticulated  Wall,  §  4. 
Rubble  Wall,  §  4. 
Ryegate  Stone,  §  3. 

S. 

Saw,  a  thin  plate  of  iron  of  considerable  lengtn,  regulated  by  a 


240 


MASONRY. 


frame  of  wood  and  cording :  the  operation  is  performed  by  the 
labourer,  §  2. 

Shoot  of  an  Arch,  the  same  as  Drift  or  Push.    See  Drift, 
Statuary,  §  3. 

Sterlings,  a  case  made  about  a  pier  c^f  stilts  in  order  to  secure  it. 

Stilts,  a  set  of  piles  driven  into  the  bed  of  a  river,  at  a  small 
distance  from  each  other,  with  a  surrounding  case  of  piling 
driven  closely  together ;  the  tops  of  the  piles  being  levelled  to 
low  water  mark,  and  the  interstices  filled  with  stones,  forms  a 
foundation  for  building  the  pier  uoon. 

Stone  Stairs,  §  5. 

Stone  "V^'alls,  §  4. 

Stretchers,  those  ctones  which  have  their  length  disposec,  hori- 
zontally in  the  length  of  the  wall. 

T. 

Tarras,  §  3. 

Through  Stones,  the  term  used  in  some  counties  for  bond  stones, 
which  see. 

Thrust,  the  same  as  Push,  Shoot,  or  Drift.    See  Drift. 
Tooling,  §  2. 
Tools,  §  2. 

u. 

Under  Bed  of  a  Stone,  the  lower  surface  generally  horizontally 
posited. 

Upper  Bed  of  a  Stone,  the  upper  surface  generally  horizontally 
posited. 

V. 

Vault,  a  mass  of  stones  so  combined  as  to  support  each  other 
over  a  hollow. 


MASONRY. 


241 


VoussoRS  the  arch  stone  in  the  fiice  or  faces  of  an  arch,  the  mid 
die  one  is  called  the  key-stone. 

W. 

Wall,  an  erection  of  stone  generally  perpendicular  to  the  horizon 
and  sometimes  battering,  in  order  to  give  stability. 

I 

Yorkshire  Stone,  §  3, 


No.  16.    2  G 


SLATING. 


§  1.  Slating  is  the  operation  of  covering  the  top  or  other  in. 
clined  parts  of  a  building  with  slate. 


SLATERS'  TOOLS 

Are  a  scantle^  a  trowel,  a  hammer,  a  zas,  a  small  hand  pick, 
a  hod,  a  board  for  mortar^  See  the  following  explanation  of 
terms. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

SLATING. 


B. 

Back  of  a  Slate,  is  the  upper  side  of  it. 

Backeb,  is  a  narrow  slate  put  on  the  back  of  a  broad  square- 
headed  slate,  when  the  slates  begin  to  get  narrow. 
Bed  of  a  Slate,  is  the  lower  side. 

Bond  or  Lap  op  a  Slate,  is  the  distance  between  the  nail  of 
the  under  slate,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  slate. 

C. 

Course,  is  any  row  of  slating,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are  hori- 
zontally posited. 

Eave,  the  skirt  or  lower  part  of  the  slating  hanging  over  the  naked 
of  the  wall. 


H. 

HoLiNo,  the  piercing  of  the  slates  for  nails. 


244 


SLATING. 


Lap.    See  Bond. 

Maegin  of  a  Couese,  Uiose  parts  of  the  backs  of  the  slates  ex. 
posed  to  the  weather. 

N. 

Nails,  painted  iron  or  copper  of  a  pyramidal  form  for  fastening 
the  slates  to  the  lath  or  boarding 

P. 

Patent  Slating,  large  slates  used  without  boarding,  and  screwed 
to  the  rafters  with  slips  of  slates  bedded  in  putty  to  cover  the 
joints. 

S. 

Soantle,  is  a  gauge  by  which  slates  are  regulated  to  their  propei 
length. 

Slates  used  in  London  are  of  several  kinds,  as  Westmoreland, 
rags,  imperial,  dutchess,  countess,  ladies,  doubles.  The  West- 
moreland are  the  best ;  they  are  from  three  feet  six  inches,  to 
one  foot  in  length,  and  from  two  feet  six  inches  to  one  foot 
broad.  Rags  are  the  second  best,  and  run  nearly  of  the  same 
size.  The  third  in  order,  of  inferior  quality,  are  the  imperials, 
they  run  from  two  feet  six  inches  long,  to  one  foot  long.  The 
other  kinds  will  be  understood  by  the  order  under  which  they 
are  named,  being  inferior  in  size  accordingly. 

Sorting  is  the  regulating  of  slates  to  their  proper  length  by  means 
of  the  scantle. 

Squaeing,  the  cutting  of  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  slates. 


SLATING. 


245 


T. 

Tail,  the  bottom  or  lower  end  of  the  slate. 
Trimming,  the  cutting  or  paring  of  the  side  and  bottom  edges,  the 
head  of  the  slate  never  being  cut* 

Z. 

Zax,  the  tool  for  cutting  the  slate. 


PLASTERING. 


§  1.  Plastering  is  the  art  of  covering  walls  or  ceilings  with 
one,  two,  or  three  layers  of  any  plastic  or  tenacious  paste,  so  as 
to  admit  of  a  smooth  and  hard  surface  when  the  material  is  dry, 
and  also  of  ornamentmg  walls  and  ceilings,  either  by  being  run 
or  cast  into  moulds. 


§  2.  PLASTERERS'  TOOLS. 

Tools  used  by  the  plasterer,  are  plastering  trowels  of  several 
descriptions,  joint  trowels,  and  jointing  rules,  a  hawke,  a  hand  float, 
a  quirk  float,  and  a  derby.  A  scratoher,  and  wooden  skreeds  for 
running  mouldings. 


§3.  MATERIALS 

Generally  employed  are  lime,  hair,  sand,  plaster  of  Paris;  and 
those  are  variously  compounded,  as  the  following  alphabetical 
arrangement  of  terms  will  show,  which  also  explains  the  tools  and 
their  uses. 

Walls  consisting  of  brick  or  stone  in  the  best  houses,  are  always 
lathed  by  the  plasterer,  previous  to  the  operation  of  plastering, 


PLASTERING. 


247 


particularly  interior  walls ;  and  it  is  more  requisite  to  lath  walls 
constructed  of  stone,  than  those  constructed  of  brick,  which  is  a 
dry  substance,  and  not  liable  to  attract  damps. 

Ceilings  are  generally  plastered  upon  laths,  particularly  in 
London.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  reeds  are  employed 
in  their  stead :  the  reeds  are  spread  out  on  the  ceiling,  so  as  to 
form  a  regular  surface,  and  are  confined  to  their  situation  by 
nailing  laths  to  the  joists,  the  reeds  running  transversely  between 
them  and  the  joists.  The  reeds  are  cheaper  than  laths,  but 
require  more  material  of  plaster  and  labour:  so  that  when  finished, 
the  difference  of  cost  is  very  trifling.  Other  matters  in  plastering 
will  be  seen  in  the  following  explanation  of  terms 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 


IN 


PLASTERING. 


A. 

Ahole  Float,  is  a  float  made  to  any  internal  angle  to  the  planes 
of  both  sides  of  the  room. 

B. 

Bastard  Stucco,  is  three  coat  plaster,  the  first  generally  rough, 
ing-in  or  rendering,  the  second  doating  is  in  troweled  stucco, 
out  the  finishing  coat  contains  a  little  hair  besides  the  sand : 
it  is  not  hand  floated,  and  the  troweling  is  done  with  less 
labour  than  what  is  denominated  troweled  stucco. 

Bay,  a  strip  or  rib  of  plaster  between  skreeds  for  regulating  the 
floating  rule. 

C. 

Ceiling,  the  upper  side  of  an  apartment  opposite  to  the  floor, 
generally  finished  with  plastered  work.  Ceilings  are  set  in  two 
difierent  ways,  the  best  is  where  the  setting  coat  is  composed  of 
plaster  and  putty,  commonly  called  gauge.  Common  ceilings 
have  plaster  but  no  hair,  this  last  is  the  same  as  the  finishing 
coat  in  walls  set  for  paper 


I 


PLASIERING.  249 
CoAESK  Stuff.    See  Lime  and  Hair. 

Coat,  a  etratum  or  thickness  of  plaster  work,  done  at  one  time 

D. 

Derby,  a  two-handed  float. 

Die,  is  when  plaster  loses  its  strength. 

Dots,  patches  of  plaster  put  on  to  regulate  the  floating  rule  in 

making  skreeds  and  bays. 
Double  Fir  Laths,  are  laths  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick, 

single  fir  laths  being  bare  by  a  quarter.    All  the  ceilings  on 

the  entrance  and  drawing-room  floors  and  best  stair-cases  should 

be  lathed  with  double  fir  laths. 

F. 

Fine  Stuff  is  made  of  lime  slacked  and  sifted  through  a  fine 
sieve,  and  mixed  with  a  due  quantity  of  hair,  and  sometimes  a 
small  quantity  of  fine  sand.  Fine  stuff"  is  used  in  common 
ceilings  and  walls,  set  for  paper  or  colour. 

Finishing,  is  the  best  coat  of  three  coat  work,  when  done  for 
stucco.  The  term  setting  is  commonly  used,  when  the  third 
coat  is  made  of  fine  stuflf  for  paper. 

First  Coat  of  two  coat  work  is  denominated  laying,  when  on 
lath,  and  rendering  on  brick,  in  three  coat  work  upon  lath  it  is 
denominated  pricking-up,  and  upon  brick,  roughing-in. 

Float,  an  implement  for  forming  the  second  coat  of  thref*  coal 
work  to  a  given  form  of  surface.  Floats  are  of  three  kinds : 
namely,  the  hand  float,  the  quirk  float,  and  the  derby. 

Floated  Lath  and  Plaster  set  fair  for  paper,  is  three  coat 
work,  the  first  pricking-up,  the  second  floating,  and  the  third  or 
setting  coat  of  fine  stuff*,  understood  to  be  pricked-up,  as  there 
is  no  floated  work  without  pricking-up. 

Floated,  rendered  and  set,  this  is  the  common  term. 

Floated  Work,  is  that  which  is  pricked-up,  floated  and  set,  or 
roughed-in.  ^ 


250 


PLASTERING. 


Floating,  is  the  second  coat  of  three  coat  work.  There  is  no 
floating  without  pricking.up  or  roughing-in  first,  and  then  the 
finishing  or  setting.  Floating  consists  of  the  same  stufi*  as 
pricking-up,  but  more  hair  is  used  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter.  The  floating  should  be  brushed  with  a  birch  broom,  in 
order  to  rough  the  surface,  for  stucco  or  setting  for  paper. 
Floating  is  always  used  in  stuccoed  work,  walls  prepared  for 
paper,  and  in  the  best  ceilings. 

Floating  Skreeds  differ  from  cornice  skreeds  in  this,  that  the 
former  is  a  strip  of  plaster,  and  the  latter  wooden  rules  for  run- 
ning the  cornice. 

Floating  Rules  are  of  every  size  and  length. 

a. 

Gauge,  a  mixture  of  fine  stuff  and  plaster,  or  putty  and  plaster, 
or  coarse  stuff*  and  plaster,  used  in  finishing  the  best  ceilings 
and  for  mouldings,  and  sometimes  for  setting  walls. 

H. 

Hair  used  in  plastering,  ought  to  be  long  fresh  hair. 
Hawke,  a  board  with  a  handle  projecting  perpendicularly  from 
the  under  side  for  holding  the  plaster. 

J. 

Joint-Rules  and  Tools  are  narrow  trowels  and  rules  of  wood 
for  making  good  mitres. 

L. 

Lath  Floated  and  Set  Fair.  These  words  bear  the  same 
meaning  as  lath  pricked-up  and  floated  and  set,  which  see. 

Lath  Layed  and  Set,  is  two  coat  work,  only  the  first  coat  called 
laying,  is  put  on  without  scratching,  except  it  is  swept  with  a 


PLASTERING. 


251 


broom.  This  is  generally  coloured  on  walls,  and  whited  on 
ceilings. 

Lath  Plastered  Set  and  Coloured,  is  the  same  with  lath  layed 
set  and  coloured,  which  see. 

Lath  Pkicked-up  Floated  and  Set  for  Paper,  is  three  coat 
work,  the  first  is  pricking-up,  the  second  floating,  and  the  finish- 
ing is  fine  stuff. 

Laying,  is  the  first  coat  on  lath  of  two  coat  plaster  or  set  work 
it  is  not  scratched  with  the  scratcher,  but  its  surface  is  roughed 
by  sweeping  it  with  a  broom.    It  differs  only  from  rendering  on 
its  application.   Rendering  is  applied  to  the  first  coat  work  upon 
brick,  whereas  laying  is  the  first  of  two  coat  work  upon  lath. 

Laying-on  Trowels,  the  trowels  used  for  laying  on  the  plaster. 

Lime  and  Hair,  is  a  mixture  of  lime  and  hair  used  in  first  coating 
and  floating.  It  is  otherwise  denominated  coarse  stuff:  in 
floating  more  hair  is  used  than  in  first  coating. 

M. 

Materials  in  plastering  are,  coarse  stuff,  fine  stuff,  stuff,  'putty, 

plaster,  gauge,  and  stucco. 
MiTERiNG  Angles,  in  making  good  internal  and  external  angles 

of  mouldings. 

Mouldings,  when  not  very  large,  are  first  run  with  coarse  gauge 
to  the  mould,  then  with  fine  stuff,  then  with  putty  and  plaster, 
and  lastly,  run  off  or  finished  with  raw  putty.  When  mouldings 
are  large,  coarse  stuff  is  first  put  on,  then  it  is  filled  with  tile 
heads  or  brick  bats,  and  run  off  successively,  with  coarse  gauge, 
fine  stuff  gauge,  putty  gauge,  and  finished  with  raw  putty :  in 
running  cornices  there  must  always  be  skreeds  upon  the  ceiling, 
whether  the  ceiling  is  floated  or  not. 

P. 

Pail,  a  vessel  for  holding  water  to  moisten  the  plaster. 


252 


PLASTERING. 


Plaster,  is  the  material  with  which  ornaments  are  cast,  and  with 
which  the  fine  stuff  of  gauge  for  mouldings  and  other  parts  are 
mixed. 

Pricking.up  is  the  first  coating  of  three  coat  work  upm  laths. 

The  material  used  is  coarse  stuff,  and  sometimes  mixed  up  in 

London  with  road  dirt  or  Thames  sand,  and  its  surface  is  always 

scratched  with  the  scratcher. 
Pugging,  the  stuff  laid  upon  sound  boarding,  in  order  to  prevent 

the  transmission  of,  or  deaden  the  sound  in  its  passage  from  one 

story  to  another. 

Putty,  is  a  very  fine  cement  made  of  lime  only.  It  is  thus  pre- 
pared :  dissolve  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  as  two  or  three 
gallons,  so  much  fresh  lime,  (constantly  stirred  with  a  stick,) 
until  the  lime  be  entirely  slacked,  and  the  whole  becomes  of 
the  consistency  of  mud ;  so  that  when  the  stick  is  taken  out 
of  it,  it  will  but  just  drop ;  then  being  sifted  or  run  through  a 
hair  sieve,  to  take  out  the  gross  parts  of  the  lime,  it  is  fit  for 
use.  Putty  differs  from  fine  stuflT  in  the  manner  of  preparing 
it,  and  in  its  being  used  without  hair. 

Q. 

Quirk  Float.    See  Angle  Float. 

R. 

Rendered  and  Floated,  is  three  coat  work,  more  commonly 
called  floated,  rendered  and  set. 

Rendered  Floated  and  Set,  for  paper,  should  be  termed 
roughed-in ;  floated  and  set  for  paper  is  three  coat  work,  the 
first  lime  and  hair  upon  brick  work,  the  second  the  same  stuff 
with  a  little  more  hair  floated  with  a  long  rule,  the  last  fine 
stuff  mixed  with  white  hair. 

Rendered  and  Set,  the  same  as  set  work,  see  Set  Work.  Ren- 
dering is  the  first  of  two  coat  work  upon  naked  brick  or  stone 
work  whited  on  walls  or  vaults:  roughing-in  being  the  first 


PLASTERING. 


253 


coat  of  three  work  on  naked  brick,  but  the  compound  term 
pricking-up,  is  used  for  the  first  of  three  coat  work  upon  lath, 
or  on  brick  work,  which  has  been  previously  rendered.  Though 
the  term  rendering  is  sometimes  used  in  three  coat  work,  it  is 
improper.  The  material  for  rendering  is  the  same  as  that  for 
pricking-up. 

Rough  Cast,  is  the  overlaying  of  walls  with  mortar,  without 

smoothing  it  with  any  tool  whatever. 
Rough  Renderiivg,  is  one  coat  rough. 

Rough  Stucco,  is  that  which  is  finished  with  stucco  floated  and 

brushed  in  a  small  degree  with  water,  much  used  at  present. 
Roughing-in,  is  the  first  coat  of  three  coat  work. 
RuNiNiNG  Mouldings.    See  Mouldings, 

S. 

ScRATCHER,  is  the  instrument  for  scratching  the  plaster,  as  its 
name  implies. 

Second  Coat,  is  either  the  finishing  coat,  as  in  layed  and  set,  or 

in  rendered  and  set ;  or  it  is  the  flor  ting,  when  the  plaster  is 

roughed-in  floated  and  set  for  paper. 
Set  Fair,  is  used  after  roughing-in  and  floated,  or  pricked  up 

and  floated  :  it  should  be  well  troweled,  as  it  does  not  answer 

for  colour  without. 
Set  Work,  two  coat  work  upon  lath  :  the  plasterers  denominate 

set  work  by  the  compound  term  of  layed  and  set. 
Setting  Coat,  on  ceilings  or  walls  in  the  best  work,  is  gauge,  or 

a  mixture  of  putty  and  plaster ;  but  in  common  work  it  consists 

ef  fine  stuff",  and  when  the  work  is  very  dry,  a  little  sand  is  used. 
The  setting  coat  may  either  be  a  second  coat  upon  laying  or 

rendering,  or  a  third  coat  upon  fl.oating;  the  term  finishing  is 

applied  to  the  third  coat  when  of  stucco,  but  setting  for  paper. 
Setting,  is  also  the  quality  that  any  kind  of  stufl"  has  to  harden 

in  a  short  time. 


254 


PLASTERING. 


Single  Fir  Laths  are  something  less  than  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness. 

Skreeds  are  wooden  rules  for  running  mouldings.  Skreeds  are 
also  the  extreme  guides  upon  the  margins  of  walls  and  ceihnga 
for  floating,  to  the  intermediate  ones  being  called  bays.  In 
running  cornices,  where  the  ceilings  are  not  floated,  there  must 
always  be  skreeds. 

Stopping,  making  good  holes  in  the  plaster. 

Stucco,  or  Finishing,  is  the  third  coat  of  three  coat  plaster,  con- 
sisting  of  fine  lime  and  sand ;  the  best  is  twice  hand  floated 
and  well  troweled  ;  bastard  succo  has  a  little  hair.  See  Finish' 
ing.  Rough  stucco  is  only  floated  and  brushed  in  a  small 
degree  with  water:  troweled  stucco  is  accounted  the  best. 

T. 

Traversing  the  skreed  for  cornices,  is  putting  on  gauge  stuflf  on 
the  ceiling  skkCeds,  for  regulating  the  running  mould  of  the 
cornice  above. 

Three  Coat  Work,  is  that  which  consists  of  pricking-up  or 

roughing-in,  floating,  and  a  finishing  coat. 
Troweled  Stucco  for  paint,  the  same  as  roughed-in  on  brick 

work,  and  set  or  pricKed-up,  floated  and  twice  hand  floated. 
Third  Coat,  is  the  stucco  for  paint  or  setting  for  paper. 
Two  Coat  Work,  is  either  layed  and  set,  or  rendered  and  set. 

See  these  articles. 

W. 

Wall,  is  the  coating  of  plaster  layed  and  set,  and  applied  to 
brick  work  only  where  there  are  two  coats. 


PAINTING  IN  OIL. 


Painting  is  the  art  of  covering  the  surfaces  of  wood,  iron,  <8cc. 
with  a  mucilaginous  substance,  which  shall  acquire  hardness  on 
the  surface,  and  thereby  protect  from  the  weather,  and  produce 
any  colour  proposed.  It  is  intended  here  to  treat  only  of  com- 
mon  painting  in  oil,  which  comprehends  the  mechanical  process 
for  preserving  and  ornamenting  stuccoed  walls  and  wood  work  of 
houses    also  iron  and  wooden  rails,  &c. 

In  this  branch,  the  requisite  tools  are  brushes  of  hogs'  bristles 
of  various  sizes,  suitable  to  the  work,  a  scraping  or  pallet  knife, 
earthen  pots  to  hold  the  colours,  a  tin  can  for  turpentine,  a  grind 
ing  stone  and  muller,  &c. ;  the  stone  should  be  hard  and  close 
grained,  about  eighteen  inches  diameter,  and  sufficiently  heavy  to 
keep  it  steady. 


The  Process  for  Painting  on  new  Wood  Work. 

As  the  knots  in  wood  (particularly  deal)  are  a  great  annoyance 
in  painting,  great  care  is  required  in  what  the  painters  term  killing 
them,  and  the  most  sure  way  of  doing  this  has  been  found  to  be, 
by  laying  upon  those  knots  which  retain  any  turpentine,  a  groat 
substance  of  lime,  immediately  on  its  being  slacked,  with  a  stop- 
pmg  knife,  (this  process  dries  or  burns  up  the  turpentine  which 
the  knots  contain,)  and  when  the  lime  has  remained  on  about 
twenty.four  hours,  scrape  it  off,  then  do  them  twice  over  with  size 


256 


PAINTING. 


knotting,  which  is  made  with  red  and  white  lead  ground  very  fine 
with  water  on  a  stone,  and  mixed  with  strong  double  glue-size  to 
be  used  warm,  after  which,  if  you  have  any  doubts  of  their  not 
being  sufficiently  covered,  do  them  over  with  red  and  white  lead 
ground  very  fine  in  linseed  oil,  and  mixed  with  a  proportion  of  that 
oil,  taking  care  to  rub  them  down  with  fine  sand  paper,  each  time 
you  do  them  over,  to  prevent  their  appearing  more  raised  than 
the  other  parts,  by  the  repetition  of  a  greater  number  of  coats  than 
the  other  parts  of  the  work  will  have ;  when  this  is  quite  dry,  lay 
on  your  priming  colour,  which  is  made  with  white  and  a  little  red 
lead  mixed  thin  with  linseed  oil.  When  the  priming  is  quite  dry, 
and  if  the  work  is  intended  to  be  finished  white,  mix  white  lead", 
and  a  very  small  portion  of  red  with  linseed  oil,  adding  a  very 
little  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  second  colour  your  work  ;  it  is  well 
to  let  the  work  remain  in  this  state  for  some  days  to  harden  :  then 
your  care  must  be  (before  you  lay  on  your  third  coat)  to  rub  it 
down  with  fine  sand  paper,  and  stop  with  oil  putty  wherever  it 
may  be  necessary,  observing  particularly  if  any  of  the  knots  show 
through  your  work,  in  which  case  take  silver  leaf,  and  lay  it  upon 
them  with  japan  gold  size ;  the  third  coat  is  white  lead  mixed 
with  linseed  oil  and  turpentine  in  equal  portions,  and  if  the  work 
is  intended  to  be  finished  with  four  coats,  let  your  finishing  coat 
be  made  of  good  old  white  lead  and  thinned  with  bleached  linseed 
oil  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  of  the  portion  of  one  of  oil  and  two  of 
turpentine  ;  a  very  small  quantity  of  blue  black  may  be  used  in 
the  two  last  coats ;  and  if  the  work  is  to  be  flatted  dead  white, 
the  above  process  is  prepared  to  receive.  Dead  white  is  fine  old 
Nottingham  lead,  and  thinned  entirely  with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

In  painting  on  stucco,  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  one  coat  more 
than  wood  work,  therefore  the  fourth  coat  should  be  mixed  with 
half  spirits  of  turpentine  and  half  oil.  and  this  will  receive  the 
finishing  coat  of  all  turpentine  or  flatting.  But  if  not  to  be  flatted, 
then  the  finishing  coat  should  be  done  with  one  part  oil  and  two  of 
turpentine.  As  the  colours  used  on  stucco  walls  are  very  nume- 
rous,  it  would  far  exceed  my  limits  to  treat  of  them  distinctly :  let 


PAINTING. 


257 


it  therefore  suffice  to  say,  that  the  same  process  must  be  observed 
in  usuig  them  as  in  white,  only  that  each  coat  should  incline  to 
the  colour  they  are  intended  to  be  finished. 


The  Process  for  Painting  on  old  Work* 

Let  all  the  work  you  intend  to  paint  be  well  rubbed  down  with 
dry  pumice  stone,  and  carefully  dusted  off,  and  where  the  work 
may  require,  let  any  cracks  or  openings  be  well  stopped  with  oil 
putty,  after  which  mix  white  lead,  addiiig  a  very  small  portion  of 
red  lead,  and  with  turpentine  and  oil  of  equal  parts,  paint  your 
work  (this  coat  is  technically  called  by  painters  second  colouring 
old  work)  after  this  is  done  and  the  work  dry,  mix  good  old  white 
lead  with  half  bleached  oil  and  half  turpentine,  adding  a  very 
small  portion  of  blue  black,  and  finish  your  work:  or  if  it  is  in. 
tended  to  be  flatted,  the  former  process  is  a  proper  preparation  to 
receive  the  dead  white ;  the  same  process  is  to  be  observed  for 
stuccoed  walls,  observing,  lhat  if  they  require  a  great  number  of 
coats,  the  mixture  of  half  oil  and  half  turpentine  is  proper.  The 
more  you  nix  your  colours  with  oil,  and  the  less  with  turpentine 
for  outside  work  the  better,  as  turpentine  is  more  adherent  to 
water  than  oil,  and  consequently,  not  so  well  calculated  to  pre- 
serve  v/ork  exposed  to  the  weather;  yet  as  oil  will  discolour 
white,  it  is  necessary  to  finish  that  with  a  portion  of  half  oil  and 
half  turpentine  :  hut  in  dark  colours,  such  as  chocolate,  greens, 
lead  colour,  &;c.  &c.  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a  little  turpentine  is 
the  best,  or  boiled  oil  only. 

White  lead  is  used  in  all  stone  colours ;  white  painting  is  en- 

tirely  white  lead  ;  lead  colours  are  white  lead  and  lamp  black  ; 

pinks  and  all  fancy  colours  have  a  portion  of  whhe  lead  in  their 

composition :  but  chocolates,  black,  brown,  and  wainscoats  have 

no  portion  whatever. 

Clear  coaling  is  made  of  white  lead  ground  m  water  and  mixed 
Nos.  17  &  18.    2  I 


258 


PAINTING. 


with  size ;  it  is  used  instead  of  a  coat  of  paint,  but  by  no  means 
answers  the  end,  as  not  possessing  a  sufficient  body,  and  will  scaUi 
off  in  time,  and  change  the  colour  in  damp  situations.  Clear 
coaling  is  most  useful  where  the-  work  is  greasy  and  smoky,  as  it 
prepares  it  better  to  receive  a  coat  of  paint :  but  when  used  for 
joiners'  work  where  mouldings  are  concerned,  it  destroys  ihe 
accuracy  of  the  workmanship  by  filling  up  the  quirks  and  mitres 
of  the  mouldings.    Clear  coaling  is  not  much  used  at  present. 

Some  colours  dry  badly,  and  in  damp  weather  all  colours  re- 
quire something  to  expedite  their  drying ;  a  good  dryer  may  be 
prepared  of  equal  parts  of  copperas  and  litharge  ground  very  fine, 
to  be  added  as  wanted. 

Putty  is  made  of  whiting  and  linseed  oil,  well  beaten  together. 

The  brushes  when  done  with  should  be  put  into  a  pan  with 
water,  which  prevents  their  drying  and  becoming  hard ;  also  if 
any  colour  is  left,  water  should  be  put  upon  it  to  prevent  ita 
drying. 

Drying  oil  is  made  thus  :  to  every  gallon  of  linseed  oil  put  one 
pound  of  red  lead,  one  pound  of  umber,  and  one  pound  of  litharge. 
The  oil  and  the  materials  to  be  boiled  for  two  or  three  hours. 
Note.  If  the  pot  in  which  the  oil  is  boiled  will  contain  fifteen 
gallons,  it  is  not  prudent  to  boil  more  than  five  gallons  at  a  time 
as  the  oil  and  material  will  swell  so  much  as  to  endanger  boiling 
over  and  setting  the  place  on  fire.  After  having  boiled  a  sufficient 
time,  the  pot  may  then  be  filled  up  with  oil,  and  made  to  simm 
gently,  and  then  it  is  finished. 


A  List  of  useful  Colours  for  House  Painting. 

Black — lamp  black. 

W7wte— white  lead. 

Yellow — ochers,  also  patent  yellow. 

Blue — ^Prussian  blue,  and  blue  black. 

Bed — red  lead,  vermilion  and  purple  brown,  or  India  red. 


PAINTING. 


259 


Red — crimson,  lakes,  to  which  add  vermilion  or  white  according 

to  the  tone. 
Green — grass,  verdigiise. 

  invisible,  dark  ocher,  blue,  and  a  little  black. 

 a  good,  patent  yellow  and  Prussian  blue. 

 pea,  mineral  green. 

Chocolate — India  red  and  black. 
Lead  Colour — black  and  white. 
Brown — umber  raw  and  burnt. 

 mix  black,  red,  and  dark  ocher. 

Purple — mix  lake  blue,  and  white. 
Yellow  and  red  lead,  make  an  orange  colour. 
Red  and  blue  make  a  purple  and  violet  colour. 
Blue  and  yellow  make  a  green  colour. 

Black,  blue,  white,  and  a  little  India  red  make  a  pearl  colour. 
Light  ocher,  Prussian  blue,  and  a  little  black  make  an  olive  colourc 
India  red  and  white,  make  a  Jlesh  colour  , 
White  and  umber,  make  a  stone  colour. 


S  M I  T II I N  G. 


Smithing  is  the  art  of  uniting  several  lumps  of  iron  into  one 
mass,  and  of  forming  any  lump  or  mass  of  iron  into  any  intended 


§  1.  Description  of  the  Forge.    Pl.  33. 

The  forge  consists  of  a  brick  hearth  raise-d  about  two  feet  six 
mches,  or  sometimes  two  feet  nine  inches  from  the  floor ;  heavier 
work  requires  a  lower  forgo  than  lighter  work  :  its  breadth  must 
also  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  work;  the  brick-work  may  be 
built  hollow  below  for  the  purpose  of  putting  things  out  of  the  way. 
The  back  of  the  forge  is  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  roof,  and  is 
enclosed  over  the  fire  in  the  form  of  a  funnel  to  collect  and  dis- 
charge the  smoke  into  the  flue,  the  funnel  is  very  wide  at  its 
commencement,  but  decreases  rapidly  to  the  fiue,  whence  it  is 
carried  up  of  a  proper  size  to  take  off  the  smoke.  The  wide  part 
is  called  the  hood  or  hovel,  which  in  modern  forges,  particularly 
in  London,  is  constructed  of  iron.  The  air  drawn  in  by  the  bcl- 
lows  is  communicated  to  the  fire  by  means  of  a  taper  pipe,  the 
small  end  of  which  passes  through  the  back  of  the  forge,  and  is 
fixed  into  a  strong  iron  plate,  called  a  tue-iron  or  patent  back,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  bellows  and  the  back  of  the  forge  from  the 
injuries  of  the  fire.  A  trough  for  coals  and  another  for  water  are 
placed  on  one  side  of  the  forge,  generally  extending  the  whole 
breadth.    See  the  Plate, 


SMITHING. 


261 


The  best  position  of  the  bellows  is  on  a  level  with  the  fire-place, 
but  they  are  frequently  placed  higher  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
room  below. 

The  Tools  are  as  follow. 


§  2.  THE  ANVIL,  Pl.  33.  Fig.  G. 

Is  formed  of  a  large  block  or  mass  of  iron  with  a  smooth  hori- 
7.ontal  face  on  the  top,  generally  hollowed  upon  three  sides,  and 
on  the  fourth  has  a  projecting  part  of  a  conic  figure  called  a 
pike,  or  beckern,  or  beak  iron.  The  face  must  be  made  of  steel, 
so  hard  as  to  be  incapable  of  being  filed.  The  anvil  is  fixed  upon 
a  wooden  block  in  order  to  keep  it  steady. 


§  3.  THE  TONGS,  Pl.  33. 

Are  of  several  forms,  straight  and  crooked  nosed :  the  former 
are  used  in  short  flat  work,  and  the  crooked  nosed  in  the  forging 
of  bars.  The  chaps,  or  parts  which  hold  the  iron,  are  placed 
near  the  joint,  and  in  order  to  keep  it  with  greater  firmness,  a  ring 
is  slipped  over  the  ends  of  the  handles  of  the  tongs. 


§4.  HAMMERS 

Are  of  several  kinds,  as  hand-hammers,  which  are  of  different 

sizes,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  work ;  the  up-hand  sledge  is 

used  by  under  workmen,  when  the  work  is  not  of  the  largest  kind 

in  battering,  in  order  to  draw  it  out  to  its  required  dimensions,  and 

for  this  purpose  both  hands  are  used.    The  about-sledge  is  the 

biggest  of  all  the  hammers,  also  used  by  under  workmen  in  bat. 

tering  the  largest  work :  the  former  hammer  is  only  lifted  up  and 
t2 


262 


SMITHING. 


down,  but  this  is  slung  entirely  round  with  both  hands  nearly  at 
the  extremity.  The  riveting  hammer  is  the  smallest  of  all ;  it  is 
not  used  at  the  forge,  but  in  riveting,  as  its  name  implies. 


§  5.  THE  VICE,  Pl.  34.  Fig.  B. 

Is  used  to  hold  any  piece  of  iron  or  work  for  the  purpose  of 
bending,  riveting,  fihng,  polishing,  &;c.  It  must  be  placed  firmly 
and  vertically  on  the  side  of  the  work  bench,  with  its  chaps  paral- 
lel to  the  edge  of  the  said  bench.  The  inner  surface  of  the  chaps 
is  roughed  with  teeth,  and  well  tempered  ;  there  is  a  spring  which 
acts  against  the  screw  pin  and  opens  the  chaps ;  the  screw  pin  is 
cut  with  a  square  thread,  as  also  the  screw,  which  is  brazed  into 
the  nut  box. 

§  6.  THE  HAND- VICE 

Is  of  two  kinds,  viz.  the  broad-chapt  hand-vice,  and  the  square 
nosed  hand-vice.  The  office  of  the  former  is  to  hold  small  work 
m  the  act  of  filing  ;  it  is  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  parts  of  the 
iron  turned  successively  to  the  file  v/hich  is  used  by  the  right. 
The  square  nosed  hand-vice  is  seldom  used,  but  in  filing  small 
globulous  work. 


§7.  THE  FLYERS 

Are  of  two  kinds,  flat  nosed  and  round  nosed :  the  former  is 
used  to  hold  small  work  while  it  is  fitting  to  its  place,  and  the 
latter  for  turning  or  bending  wire,  or  small  plates. 


SMITHING. 


263 


§  8.  DRILLS,  Pl.  34.  Fig.  E. 

Are  used  in  boring  holes  which  cannot  be  punched,  owing  to 
the  thickness  of  the  iron,  or  which  require  more  exactness  than 
can  be  performed  by  the  punch,  which  is  very  apt  to  set  the  work 
out  of  order  and  shape-  Drills  are  required  of  various  sizes,  and 
to  be  made  of  the  best  steel.  The  drill  consists  of  a  cutting  point, 
a  shank,  and  drill  barrel,  which  must  be  of  a  diameter  sufficient 
to  turn  the  drill  with  the  required  velocity.  The  drill  is  turned 
by  a  bow  and  string,  the  string  is  coiled  round  the  barrel,  the  bow- 
goes  with  0  reciprocating  motion,  and  causes  the  drill  to  perform 
several  revolutions  in  each  progressive  and  retrogressive  motion 
of  the  bow,  and  different  kinds  of  work  will  require  different  bows, 
according  to  the  force  required  to  turn  the  drill,  for  lighter  or 
stronger  work  :  there  is  also  a  drill  plate  or  breast  plate,  in  which 
the  blunt  end  of  the  shank  of  the  drill  is  inserted,  and  by  which 
the  drill  is  pressed  to  the  work. 

To  make  large  holes,  more  force  is  required  than  can  be  given 
by  the  bow  and  string,  instead  of  which  a  brace  similar  to  that 
used  by  joiners  is  employed,  and  the  drill  itself  is  fitted  in  as  a 
bit,  instead  of  the  end  of  the  stock,  which  remains  stationary  while 
the  other  part  is  turning ;  there  is  a  long  tapering  spindle  of  iron, 
which  is  carried  round  with  the  brace  ;  the  upper  end  of  this 
spindle  is  inserted  in  the  lower  horizontal  side  of  an  iron  plate, 
which  is  fixed  to  the  under  side  of  a  beam,  called  the  drill  beam. 
The  drill  beam  turns  upon  a  transverse  pin  horizontally  posited  at 
one  end,  and  is  drawn  down  by  a  weight  at  the  other,  and  thus 
presses  the  brace  downwards  by  the  ponderosity  of  the  beam  and 
that  of  the  weight,  while  the  brace  is  revolved  by  hand.  A  piece 
of  iron  being  laid  under  the  drill  bit,  where  the  hole  is  intended, 
and  the  drill  turned  swiftly  round  will  be  bored  through,  or  to  any 
required  depth.    See  Plate  34,  Fig.  E. 


SMITHING. 


§9.  SCREW  PLATES 

Are  plates  of  well  tempered  steel  with  several  cylindric  holes  of 
different  diameters,  with  screw  threads  wrought  into  square 
grooves  from  the  surface  of  the  interior  concavity;  to  these  plates 
belong  as  many  pins,  tapering  to  their  ends,  called  taps,  which 
are  the  frustrums  of  cones,  not  differing  materially  from  cylinders  ; 
the  convex  surface  is  threaded  in  the  same  manner,  and  made  to 
fit  their  respective  holes. 


§10.  SHEARS, 

An  instrument  for  cutting  iron,  consisting  of  two  equal  and  si. 
milar  pieces  moveable  round  a  joint,  near  to  two  of  the  ends,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a  double  lever,  so  that  when  two  of  the  ends 
are  opened  or  shut,  the  other  ends  will  be  opened  or  shut  also. 
The  cutting  edges  which  meet  each  other  are  brought  to  an  acute 
angle,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  inner  faces  gradually  come  more 
and  more  in  contact  in  the  same  plane,  as  the  longer  ends  which 
are  employed  as  handles  are  brought  nearer  together.  Shears 
are  used  in  cutting  iron  plates,  and  even  bars,  and  are  conse- 
quently of  various  sizes,  according  to  the  stiffness  or  strength  of 
the  iron  to  be  cut.  When  the  shears  are  used,  one  handle  is 
screwed  fast  in  the  vice,  and  the  other  only  is  moveable  ;  the  iron 
to  be  cut  is  laid  between  the  edges  which  close  together. 


§11.  SAWS 

In  general  oave  been  sufficiently  defined  in  §  45  Joinery.  They 
are  used  by  sm.iths  to  cut  pieces  of  iron  or  bars  of  all  dimensions, 
•\nd  for  cutting  grooves  and  notches  to  any  required  depth.  Shears 
have  an  advantage  over  saws  in  cutting  with  more  rapidity,  but 
saws  cut  with  more  exactness,  and  save  the  whole  or  much  labor 


SMITHING. 


265 


in  filing ;  and  may  be  also  used  in  cutting  bars  or  pieces  of  the 
greatest  dimensions,  where  shears  cannot  be  used.  Smiths'  saws 
must  be  very  narrow  and  stiflT,  with  a  bow  of  iron,  by  which  the 
ends  are  made  fast,  and  the  plate  stretched  by  a  screw  at  one 
end ;  the  bow  has  a  projecting  part  in  a  straight  line  with  the 
saw,  which  forms  the  handle. 


§  12.   Of  Forging. 

In  forging,  the  fire  must  be  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  work, 
and  in  heating  the  iron,  beat  the  coals  round  the  outside  of  the 
fire  close  together  with  the  slice,  in  order  to  prevent  the  heat  from 
escaping  as  often  as  the  flame  begins  to  break  out,  and  in  order 
to  save  fuel,  wet  or  damp  the  outside  of  the  coals :  to  know  whe- 
ther the  work  takes  the  heat,  draw  it  a  small  degree  out  of  the 
fire,  and  thrust  it  quickly  in  again  if  not  hot  enough  :  if  the  iron 
be  too  cold  the  hammer  wjjl  make  no  impression  upon  it,  or  in  the 
language  of  smiths,  it  will  not  batter ;  if  too  hot  it  will  break  or 
crack. 


§13.  Of  Heats, 

Heats  are  of  several  kinds,  depending  on  the  destination  of  the 
work,  as  blood-red  heat,  white-flame  heat,  and  sparkling  o-r  weld- 
ing heat.  The  blood-red  heat  is  used  when  the  shape  of  the  iron 
is  not  required  to  be  altered,  and  when  the  surface  is  only  re- 
quired to  be  smooth  hammered :  this  operation  is  performed  by 
the  hand-hammer  with  light  flat  blows  until  the  protuberances  and 
hollows  are  brought  to  the  required  surface,  whether  planed  or 
curved,  the  work  is  then  prepared  for  the  file.  The  hammering 
of  the  work  to  a  true  surface,  will  save  much  trouble  in  filing. 

The  white-flame  heat  is  used  in  forming  the  iron  from  o«e  shape 
to  another ;  in  the  execution  of  this,  one,  two,  or  more  men  must 
be  employed  to  batter  the  work  with  sledges,  until  it  acquires 
2  K 


266 


SMITHING. 


nearly  its  proposed  form  and  size ;  afterwards  smooth  it  with  the 
hand  hammer. 

A  sparkling  or  welding  heat  is  used  when  the  iron  is  required 
to  be  doubled,  or  two  or  more  pieces  consolidated,  in  order  to 
make  the  piece  of  the  required  dimensions.  In  joining  two  or 
more  bars  together,  heat  them  to  that  degree  as  to  be  nearly  in  a 
state  of  fusion ;  they  must  then  be  taken  out  of  the  fire  with  the 
utmost  despatch,  and  the  scales  or  dirt  which  will  hinder  their 
incorporation  being  scraped  off,  put  the  pieces  in  contact  at  the 
heated  part,  and  hammer  them  together  until  there  is  no  seam  or 
fissure  left:  this  operation  will  require  two  or  more  men,  accord, 
ing  to  the  magnitude  of  the  bars.  If  the  particles  of  the  iron  have 
not  been  sufficiently  incorporated  by  the  first  heat,  more  heats 
and  the  operations  of  hammering  must  be  repeated  until  the  work 
is  perfectly  sound ;  after  which  it  is  formed  into  the  shape  pro- 
posed, and  finished  by  smoothing,  &c.  To  make  the  iron  come 
sooner  to  a  welding  heat,  stir  the  fire  with  the  hearth  staff,  and 
throw  out  the  cinders  the  iron  may  have  run  upon,  as  they  will 
prevent  the  coals  from  burning  ;  to  prevent  the  iron  melting,  throw 
some  sand  over  it  while  in  the  fire.  In  this  operation  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  iron  from  running,  which  will  make  it  so  brittle 
as  to  prevent  its  forging,  and  so  hard  as  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
file.  In  welding,  some  smiths  strew  a  little  sand  upon  the  face  of 
the  anvil,  as  they  conceive  it  makes  the  iron  incorporate  better.  If 
by  ill  management  the  iron  be  wrought  too  thin  or  too  narrow,  and 
should  there  be  substance  enough  to  make  it  thicker,  give  it  a 
flame  heat,  and  set  the  heated  end  upright  upon  the  anvil,  and 
hammer  upon  the  cold  end  until  the  heated  end  be  beat  to  the 
size  or  turned  into  the  body  of  the  work ;  the  part  so  beat  is  said 
to  up.set,  and  the  operation  is  called  up-setting.  When  your 
work  is  forged,  let  it  cool  gradually,  and  do  not  by  any  means 
quench  it  in  water,  which  will  harden  it  too  much. 


SMITHING. 


207 


§  14.  To  punch  a  Hole, 

Take  a  punch  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  hole  required,  the 
point  or  narrow  end  of  it  nnust  be  hardened  without  tempering,  as 
the  heat  of  the  iron  will  sofleu  ii  sufficiently,  and  sometimes  too 
much,  and  then  it  must  be  re-hardcned  :  if  the  work  is  not  very 
large,  bring  the  iron  to  a  blood  heat,  but  if  very  large,  bring  a 
almost  to  a  liame  heat,  and  lay  it  upon  the  anvil :  and  place  the 
point  of  the  punch  at  the  spot  where  the  hole  is  to  be  made,  then 
with  the  hammer  punch  the  hole.  If  the  work  is  very  heavy,  fix 
the  punch  in  a  wooden  rod,  and  place  it  on  the  intended  situation 
of  the  hole ;  let  another  person  strike  till  the  punch  is  forced 
about  halfway  through,  then  reverse  the  iron  and  punch  through 
on  the  contrary  side ;  the  hole  is  afterwards  smoothed,  and  per 
fected  by  a  mandrill  being  driven  through.  But  in  punching  take 
care  to  plunge  the  punch  into  water  as  often  as  it  is  heated,  or  as 
often  as  it  changes  colour,  in  order  to  re-harden  it  otherwise  it 
will  spoil  both  the  work  and  the  punch. 


§  15,  Filing  mid  Polishing. 

Fihng  is  the  operation  of  cutting  or  tearing  iron  in  particles  or 
very  small  parts,  called  filings,  by  means  of  an  instrument  toothed 
all  over  its  surface ;  the  instrument  itself  is  called  a  file.  Files 
are  differently  formed,  and  of  various  sizes  for  different  purposes, 
their  sections  being  either  square,  oblong,  triangular,  or  seg- 
mental ;  the  files  of  these  sections  are  respectively  denominated 
square,  flat,  three  square,  and  half  round ;  they  also  differ  in  the 
magnitude  of  their  teeth,  as  the  iron  may  be  required  to  be  more 
or  less  reduced  in  a  given  time :  it  is  evident  that  in  the  operation 
of  filmg,  the  surface  of  the  iron  will  be  full  of  scratches,  and  these 
scratches  will  be  larger  or  smaller  according  as  the  teeth  of  the 
ri\es  are  coarser  or  finer  :  files  have  therefore  obtained  the  follow, 
mg  names,  according  to  the  number  of  teeth  cut  on  the  same 


268  SMITHLNG. 

area  :  the  largest  roiioh  tool  file  is  called  a  rubber,  and  is  used 
after  the  hammer  in  taking  away  the  prominent  parts  on  the  sur 
face  of  the  iron  ;  the  bastard  tooth  file  is  employed  to  fake  out  the 
marks  made  by  the  rubber,  the  fine-toothed  file  is  employed  in 
taking  out  the  scratches  made  by  the  bastard-toothed  file  ;  and 
lastly,  the  smooth-toothed  file  is  employed  in  taking  out  the 
scratches  of  the  last :  the  surface  is  at  last  made  perfectly  smooth 
by  means  of  emery  and  tripoli.  And  whatever  be  the  surface 
of  the  work,  whether  flat,  cylindrical,  or  conical,  the  file  must 
always  be  made  to  describe  that  surfece  as  near  as  the  hand 
and  judgment  can  direct:  these  matters,  by  keeping  the  principle 
of  motion  in  view,  are  soon  obtained  by  practice. 

After  the  surface  of  the  iron  has  been  smoothed  by  the  emery 
and  tripoli,  it  is  then  polished  by  a  piece  of  very  hard  and  highly 
polished  steel,  called  a  burnisher,  with  a  handle  at  one  or  both 
ends,  according  to  the  pressure  required,  which  will  depend  on 
the  magnitude  of  the  surface.  The  sides  of  the  burnisher  are 
either  flat  or  convex,  according  to  the  surface  to  be  polished. 


§  16.  To  cut  thick  Iron  Plate  to  any  required  Figure. 

Having  drawn  or  scratched  the  figure  upon  the  surface  of  an 
iron  plate,  place  it  on  the  anvil,  if  large;  if  small,  upon  the  stake  : 
a  chisel  being  in  your  left  hand,  with  its  edge  set  upon  the  mark, 
strike  it  with  the  hammer  till  the  substance  is  nearly  cut  through, 
so  as  to  leave  a  very  thin  portion  of  the  thickness  below  it : 
observe,  if  the  iron  were  cut  through,  the  face  of  the  anvil  being 
steel,  it  will  batter  or  break  the  edge  of  the  chisel,  and  for  this 
reason  when  the  edge  comes  very  near  the  under  side  of  the  plate, 
strike  only  with  light  blows :  repeat  this  operation  till  the  whole 
of  the  figure  is  gone  over ;  the  part  intended  to  be  taken  away, 
may  be  broken  oflT  with  the  fingers  or  with  a  pair  of  plyers,  or  by 
pinching  the  plate  in  the  vice,  with  the  cut  part  close  to  the  chaps, 
and  then  wriggle  it,  till  it  comes  asunder. 


SxMlTHING. 


209 


§  17.  Rwetiug 

Is  the  art  of  fixing  the  end  of  a  pin  into  a  hole,  by  battering  or 
spreading  the  end  which  has  passed  through  the  hole,  so  as  not 
only  to  fill  the  hole,  but  to  increase  its  dianneter  on  the  opposite 
side,  and  thereby  prevent  its  being  drawn  out  again. 


§  18.  To  rivet  a  Pin  to  a  Plate  or  Piece  of  Iron. 

Having  formed  the  shank  to  the  size  of  the  hole,  with  a  shoulder, 
and  something  longer  than  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  file  the  end 
of  the  shank  flat,  so  that  it  may  batter  more  easily  ;  slip  the  shank 
into  the  hole,  and  keeping  the  shoulder  in  contact  Avith  the  surface 
of  the  plate ;  the  end  of  the  pin  abutting  upon  the  stake,  and  the 
pin  standing  perpendicular,  strike  the  edge  of  the  end  of  the 
shank  with  light  blows,  until  it  is  spread  all  round,  then  lay  heavier 
blows,  sometimes  with  the  face,  and  sometimes  with  the  pen  of 
the  hammer,  till  the  end  of  the  shank  is  sufficiently  battered  over 
the  plate  :  in  performing  this  operation,  care  must  be  taken  to 
keep  the  pin  at  right  angles  to  the  plate,  and  the  shoulder  close. 


§  19.  To  make  small  Screw-Bolts  and  Nuts. 

Supposing  the  shank  of  the  screw-bolt  to  be  let  into  a  square 
hole,  in  order  to  keep  it  from  twisting  by  the  turning  of  the  nut ; 
take  a  square  bar  or  rod  of  iron  near  the  size  of  the  head  of  the 
screw-pin,  and  bring  it  to  a  fiame  heat ;  take  as  much  of  the  length 
of  the  bar  as  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  shank,  and  lay  one  side 
flat  upon  the  nearer  side  of  the  anvil,  and  hammer  it  down  to  the 
intended  thickness;  this  will  forge  two  of  the  sides  at  once, 
the  under  side  being  forged  by  the  anvil,  and  the  upper  beat  flat 


270 


SxVllTHiNG. 


with  the  hammer ;  but  if  the  iron  get  cold  before  the  forging  is 
finished,  it  must  have  another  heat.  Then  lay  one  of  the  un- 
wrought  sides  upon  the  nearer  side  of  the  anvil,  and  hammer  this 
side  straight  as  before,  so  that  the  two  other  sides  will  also  be 
made ;  then  beat  in  the  angles  so  as  to  make  it  nearly  round,  and 
of  such  length  as  is  equal  to  the  intended  length  of  the  screw  pin.' 
Having  forged  the  shank  square,  and  formed  the  head  either 
square  or  round  as  may  be  intended ;  file  also  the  screw  pin  so 
as  to  make  it  taper  in  a  small  degree,  and  to  take  out  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  forge ;  the  conic  form  makes  it  enter  more  easily, 
and  the  irregularities  being  taken  away,  makes  the  screw  more 
exact  in  the  distances  of  the  threads  :  the  quantity  of  taper  may 
be  something  more  than  twice  the  depth  of  the  threads.  Then  fix 
the  bolt  with  the  head  downwards  into  the  vice,  and  with  a  screw 
plate  equal  to  the  interior  diameter  of  the  cylinder  from  which  the 
screw  is  to  project,  lay  the  hole  upon  the  end  of  the  screw  pin, 
and  press  it  hard  downwards.  Then  turn  the  screw  plate  parallel 
to  the  horizon  from  right  to  left  with  a  uniform  pressure  round 
about  the  pin,  both  progressively  and  retrogressively,  and  the  plate 
will  begin  to  groove  out  the  channel  between  the  thread  of  the 
screw :  proceed  with  this  process  until  as  much  of  the  screw  be 
formed  as  is  required. 

To  make  the  nut,  the  hole  must  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  from  which  the  thread  is  made  in  the  shank  of  the  screw, 
and  the  tap  must  be  made  tapering,  in  order  to  enter  the  hole. 
Proceed  and  screw  the  nut  in  the  vice,  with  the  axis  of  the  cylin- 
dric  bole  vertical,  and  enter  the  screw  tap,  which  turn  by  the 
handle  as  before,  and  it  will  begin  to  cut  the  interior  groove  of 
the  nut ;  proceed  working  until  the  groove  between  the  thread  be 
of  its  full  depth :  the  thread  and  groove  in  the  nut  will  thus  be 
made  to  fit  the  groove  and  thread  of  the  screw  pin. 


SMITHING. 


271 


§20.  Of  Iron. 

Iron  is  a  metal  of  a  bluish  white  colour,  of  considerable 
hardness,  but  easily  formed  into  any  shape,  and  is  susceptible  of 
a  very  fine  polish.  It  is  the  most  elastic  of  all  the  metals,  and 
next  to  platina,  is  the  most  difficult  of  fusion.  Its  hardness  in  some 
states  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  metal,  and  it  has  the  addi- 
tional  advantage  of  suffering  this  hardness  to  be  increased  or 
diminished  at  pleasure,  by  certain  chymical  processes,  without 
altering  its  form.  Its  tenacity  is  also  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  metal,  except  gold  ;  an  iron  wire,  the  tenth  part  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  has  been  found  capable  of  sustaining  mo^e  than  5001b. 
weight  without  breaking.  Its  ductility  is  such  as  l:o  allow  it  to  be 
drawn  into  wire  as  fine  as  a  hair. 

Iron  ore  is  found  mixed  with  sand,  clay,  chalk,  and  in  many 
kinds  of  stones  and  earths.  It  is  also  found  in  the  ashes  of 
vegetables,  and  the  blood  of  animals  in  great  abundance.  Iron 
ores  are  therefore  extremely  numerous. 

Iron  is  obtained  from  the  ore  by  an  operation  called  smelting, 
and  in  this  state  it  is  called  crude  iron,  cast  iron,  or  pig  iron,  but 
it  is  very  impure.  Cast  iron  is  scarcely  malleable  at  any  tempe- 
rature, it  is  generally  so  hard  as  to  resist  the  file,  and  is  extremely 
brittle  ;  however,  it  is  equally  permanent  in  many  applications  with 
wrought  iron,  and  is  less  liable  to  rust ;  and  being  easily  cast  into 
various  forms  by  melting,  is  much  cheaper.  Indeed  the  labour  to 
wrought  iron  if  applied  to  many  of  the  purposes  to  which  cast  iron 
is  used  would  be  incredible,  and  in  some  cases  insurmountable.  The 
use  of  cast  iron  is  sufficiently  obvious  in  the  wheel  work  of  every 
department  of  machinery,  in  crane  work,  in  iron  bridges,  in  beams 
and  pillars  for  large  buildings,  and  in  numerous  articles  of  manu 
facture. 

Cast  iron  is  reduced  into  wrought  or  bar  iron,  or  forged  iron,  by 
divesting  it  of  several  foreign  mixtures  with  which  it  is  incorpo- 
rated.   The  varieties  of  wrought  iron  are  the  follov/ing  :  hot.short 


272 


SMiTHLNG. 


iron  is  so  brittle  when  heated  that  it  will  not  bear  the  weight  of  a 
small  hammer  without  breaking  to  atoms,  but  is  malleable  when 
cold,  and  very  fusible  in  a  high  temperature ;  cold-short  iron 
possesses  the  opposite  qualities,  and  is  with  difficulty  fusible  in  a 
strong  heat,  and  though  capable  while  hot  of  being  beaten  into 
any  shape,  is  when  cold  very  brittle,  and  but  slightly  tenacious. 
The  iron  in  general  use,  which  though  in  a  chymical  point  of  view 
is  not  entirely  pure,  is  so  far  perfect  that  it  possesses  none  of  these 
defects  ;  its  principal  properties  are  the  following  ;  1st.  When 
applied  to  the  tongue  it  has  a  styptic  taste,  and  emits  a  peculiar 
smell  when  rubbed :  2d.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  7*6  to 
I'S ;  a  cubic  foot  of  it  weighs  about  580ib.  avoirdupoise  :  3d.  It 
IS  attracted  by  the  magnet  or  loadstone,  and  is  itself  one  of  its 
ores,  the  substance  which  constitutes  the  loadstone.  It  is  also 
capable  of  acquiring  itself  the  attraction  and  polarity  of  the  mag- 
net in  various  ways;  iron,  however,  that  is  perfectly  pure,  retains 
the  magnetic  virtue  only  a  very  short  time  :  4th.  It  is  malleable 
m  every  temperature,  which  as  it  rises,  increases  the  malleability. 
It  cannot,  however,  be  hammered  out  so  thin  as  gold  or  silver,  or 
even  copper.  Its  ductihty  is  very  great,  and  its  tenacity  is  such, 
than  an  iron  wire  something  less  than  the  twelfth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  is  capable  of  supporting  without  breaking  549ilb.  avoir- 
dupoise ;  5th.  it  melts  at  about  158"  of  Wedgewood  :  6lh.  it  com- 
bines very  readily  with  oxygen  ;  when  exposed  to  the  air  its 
surface  is  soon  tarnished,  and  is  gradually  changed  into  a  brown 
or  yellow  colour,  usually  called  rust :  this  change  takes  place 
more  rapidly,  as  it  is  more  exposed  to  moisture. 

To  preserve  iron  from  rust,  particularly  when  polished,  various 
methods  have  been  tried  with  more  or  less  success :  among 
others,  the  partial  oxidation,  known  by  the  term  bluing,  has  beer 
adopted ;  the  slightest  coat  of  grease  is  sufficient  to  prevent  rust. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  and  the  most  plentiful  of  all  metals.  It 
requires  a  very  intense  heat  to  fuse  it,  on  which  account  it  can 
only  be  brought  into  shape  of  tools  and  utensils  by  hammering : 
this  high  degree  of  infusibility  would  prevent  the  uniting  of  several 


/ 


SMITHING. 


273 


masses  into  one,  were  it  not  from  its  being  capable  of  welding,  a 
property  which  is  found  in  no  other  metal  except  platina.  In 
a  white  heat,  iron  appears  as  if  covered  with  a  kind  of  varnish,  and 
in  this  state,  if  two  pieces  be  applied  together,  they  will  adhere, 
and  may  be  perfectly  united  by  forging. 

Steel  is  made  of  the  purest  malleable  iron  by  an  operation  called 
cementation,  by  which  it  acquires  a  small  addition  to  its  weight, 
amounting  to  about  the  hundred  and  fiftieth  or  two  hundredth 
part.  In  this  state  it  is  much  more  brittle  and  fusible  than  before. 
It  may  be  welded  like  bar  iron,  if  it  has  not  been  fused  or  over 
cemented  ;  but  its  most  useful  and  advantageous  property  is,  that 
of  becoming  extremely  hard  when  healed  and  plunged  into  cold 
water ;  the  hardness  which  it  thus  acquires  is  greater,  as  the  steel 
is  hotter  and  the  water  colder.  The  sign  which  directs  the  me- 
chanic in  the  tempering  of  steel,  is  the  variation  of  colour  which 
appears  on  its  surface.  If  the  steel  be  slowly  heated  the  colours 
which  it  exhibits  are  a  yellowish  white,  yellow,  gold  colour,  pur- 
ple, violet,  deep  blue.  If  the  steel  is  too  hard,  it  will  not  be 
proper  for  tools  which  are  intended  to  have  a  fine  edge,  as  it  will 
be  so  brittle  that  the  edge  will  soon  become  notched :  and  if  it  is 
too  soft,  the  edge  will  soon  turn  aside,  even  by  very  slight  usage. 
Some  artists  heat  their  tools  and  plunge  them  into  cold  water, 
after  which  they  brighten  the  surface  of  the  steel  upon  a  stone  ; 
the  steel  being  then  laid  upon  hot  charcoal,  or  upon  the  surface 
of  melted  lead,  or  placed  on  a  bar  or  piece  of  hot  iron,  gradually 
acquires  the  desired  colour,  and  at  this  instant  it  must  be  plunged 
into  water.  If  a  hard  temper  is  required,  as  soon  as  a  yellow 
tinge  appears,  the  piece  is  dipped  again  and  stirred  about  in  the 
cold  water.  In  tempering  of  tools  for  working  upon  metals,  it 
will  be  proper  to  bring  it  to  a  purple  tinge  before  the  dipping. 
Springs  are  tempered  by  bringing  the  surface  to  a  blue  tinge. 
This  temperature  is  also  desirable  for  tools  employed  in  cutting 
soft  substances,  such  as  cork,  leather,  and  the  like  ;  but  if  the 
steel  be  plunged  into  water  when  its  surface  has  acquired  a  deep 
blue,  its  hardness  will  scarcely  exceed  the  temperature  of  iron. 

No.  18      2  L 


274 


SMITHING 


When  soft  steel  is  heated  to  any  one  of  these,  and  then  plunged 
into  water,  it  does  not  acquire  so  great  a  degree  of  hardness  as  ii 
previously  made  quite  hard.  The  degree  of  heat  required  to 
harden  steel,  is  different  in  the  different  kinds.  The  best  knds 
require  only  a  low  red  heat ;  the  harder  the  steel,  the  more  coarise 
and  granulated  its  fracture  will  be.  Steel,  when  hardened,  has 
less  specific  gravity  than  when  soft ;  the  texture  of  steel  is  ren- 
dered more  uniform  by  fusing  it  before  it  is  made  into  bars,  and  in 
this  state  it  is  called  cast  steel,  which  is  wrought  with  more  diffi- 
culty than  common  steel,  because  it  is  more  fusible,  and  will 
disperse  under  the  hammer  if  heated  to  a  white  heat.  Every 
species  of  iron  is  convertible  into  steel  by  cementation  ;  but  the 
best  steel  can  only  be  made  from  iron  of  the  best  quality  which 
possesses  stiffness  and  hardness  as  well  as  malleability.  Swedish 
iron  has  been  long  remarked  as  the  best  for  this  purpose. 

The  Cast  Steel  of  England  is  made  as  follows  :  a  crucible  about 
ten  inches  high,  and  seven  inches  in  diameter,  is  filled  with  ends 
and  fragments  of  the  crude  steel  of  the  manufactories,  and  the 
filings  and  fragments  of  steel  works ;  they  add  a  flux,  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  which  are  usually  concealed.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever,  that  the  success  does  not  much  depend  upon  the  flux.  This 
crucible  is  placed  in  a  wind  furnace,  like  that  of  the  founders, 
but  smaller,  because  intended  to  contain  but  one  pot  only.  It  is 
likewise  surmounted  by  a  cover  and  chimney,  to  increase  the 
draught  of  air  ;  the  furnace  is  entirely  filled  with  coke,  or  charred 
pit-coal.  Five  hours  are  required  for  the  perfect  fusion  of  the 
steel.  It  is  then  poured  into  long,  square,  or  octagonal  moulds, 
each  composed  of  two  pieces  of  cast  iron  fitted  together.  The 
ingots  when  taken  out  of  the  mould,  have  the  appearance  of  cast 
iron.  It  is  then  forged  in  the  same  manner  as  other  steel,  but 
with  loss  heat  and  more  precaution.  Cast  steel  is  almost  twice  as 
dear  as  other  good  steel ;  it  is  excellent  for  razors,  knives,  joiners' 
chisels,  and  for  all  kinds  of  small  work  that  require  an  exquisite 
polish :  its  texture  is  more  uniform  than  common  steel,  which  is 
an  invaluable  advantage.   It  is  daily  more  and  more  used  in  Eng. 


Ni.S.Sam  ar-ci.  Sc. 


SMITHING. 


275 


land,  but  it  cannot  be  employed  in  works  of  great  magnitude,  on 
account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  is  degraded  in  the  fire,  and 
the  difficulty  of  welding  it. 

To  conclude  :  British  cast  iron  is  excellent  for  all  kinds  of 
castings ;  our  wrought  iron  also  of  late  has  been  much  improved 
in  the  manufacture,  and  by  many  persons  is  thought  not  to  be  in- 
ferior to  that  of  Sweden,  which  till  lately  had  a  decided  preference, 
and  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  use  of  charcoal  in  the  process  of 
smelting,  which  cannot  be  procured  in  sufficient  quantity  in  Eng- 
land, where  pit  coal  has  of  necessity  been  substituted.  The  Navy 
Board  and  East  India  Company,  however,  now  contract  for  British 
iron  only. 


PLATE  XXXIII. 

Perspective  View  of  a  SmitVs  Work  Shop,  shewing  a  double  Forge 
with  its  Apparatus  J  and  some  Tools  in  general  Use, 

A  back  of  the  forge. 
B  the  hood. 

C  Bradley's  patent  back,  showing  the  nozel  or  the  iron  of  the 
bellows. 

D  end  of  the  forge. 

E  bellows  with  the  rock  stafl?*. 

F  troughs  for  coals  and  water. 

G  anvil,  shewing  the  beak  iron,  and  a  hole  for  holding  the  tools 
on  the  top.    The  anvil  being  supported  upon  a  wooden  blocko 

H  a  strong  stool  for  supporting  the  chasing  tool  I. 

I  the  chasing  tool  for  rounding  bolts,  and  punching  holes  in 
iron;  the  holes  are  called  bolsters,  and  those  upon  the  sides  are 
called  rounding  tools  ;  the  whole  is  called  generally  a  bolster. 

K  a  sledge  hammer. 

Near  D  is  a  horse  to  hold  up  long  pieces  of  iron  at  the  end  of 
the  forge,  when  found  necessary. 


276 


SMITHING. 


The  square  hole  near  A  is  used  for  discharging  the  ashes,  which 
slide  down  a  hollow,  and  come  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  front. 

The  coal  trough  is  placed  next  to  the  forge,  and  the  water 
trough  next  to  the  front.  The  tongs  are  shewn  in  the  water  trough, 
and  a  pair  of  hp  and  straight  tongs  are  shewn  on  it. 

In  smiths'  shops,  where  heavy  articles  are  manufactured,  cranes 
are  employed  for  taking  the  work  out  of  the  fire. 


PLATE  XXXIV. 

View  of  another  Part  of  a  Smithes  Work  SJiop^  sliewing  the  Work 
Benches  with  the  Vices,  the  Drill  in  the  act  of  Boring,  and  a  Turn- 
ing Machine,  as  wrought  by  a  Winch  and  Wheel,  as  also  by  the 
Foot. 

A,  A  work  benches. 

B,  B,  B  vices.   — 

C  the  bench  anvil. 

D,  E,  F,  G  various  parts  of  a  drill  machine. 
D  the  drill  block. 
E  the  drill  and  brace. 

F  the  drill  beam,  shewing  the  lever  to  pull  it  up. 

G  a  rod  to  hang  a  larger  or  smaller  weight,  for  giving  more  oi 
less  power  to  the  drill,  as  may  be  required  in  boring  a  greater  oi 
less  hole. 

H,  I,  K,  L  parts  of  the  turning  lathe. 

H  handle  to  turn  the  large  wheel. 

I  the  large  wheel. 

Pulleys  for  the  cord. 

L  puppets,  rest,  collar,  and  mandril. 

N  wheel  and  crank  for  revolving  the  mandril  by  the  foot,  <kc 


INDEX 


AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

SMITHING. 

N.  B.  This  Mark  §  refers  to  iJic  jpreceding  Sections,  according  to 
the  Number, 


A. 

About  Sledge,  the  largest  hammer  used  by  smiths;  it  is  slung 
round  near  the  extremity  of  the  handle,  generally  useJ  by  under 
workmen,  §  4. 

Anvil,  a  large  block  or  mass  of  iron  with  a  very  hard  smooth 
horizontal  surface  on  the  top,  and  a  hole  at  one  end  of  the 
surface,  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  various  tools,  and  a  strong 
steel  chisel,  on  which  a  piece  of  iron  may  be  laid  and  cut  into 
two.  Anvils  are  sometimes  made  of  cast  iron,  but  the  best  are 
those  which  are  forged,  with  the  upper  face  made  of  steel. 
Small  anvils  are  also  used  in  more  delicate  parts  of  the  business, 
§  2,  See  Plate  33.  Fig.  G.    Plate  34.  Fig,  C. 

B. 

ixR  Iron,  long  prismatic  pieces  of  iron,  being  rectangular  paral- 
lopipeds,  prepared  from  pig  iron,  so  as  to  be  malleable  for  the 
use  of  blacksmiths.    For  the  method  of  joining  bars,  see  §  13 


278 


SMITHIiNG. 


Bastard  Cut,  §  15. 

Bastard-toothed  File,  that  employed  after  the  rubber,  §  15. 

Batter,  to  displace  a  portion  of  the  iron  of  any  bar  or  other  piece 
by  the  blow  of  a  hammer  so  as  to  flatten  or  compress  it  inwardly, 
and  spread  it  outwardly  on  all  sides  around  the  place  of  impact. 

Beak  Iron,  the  conic  part  of  the  anvil,  with  its  base  attached  to 
the  side,  and  its  axis  horizontal,  §  2.    See  Plate  33.  Fig,  G. 

Bellows,  the  instrument  for  blowing  the  fire,  with  an  internal 
cavity,  so  contrived  as  to  be  of  greater  or  less  capacity  by  re- 
ciprocating motion,  and  to  draw  in  air  at  one  place  while  the 
capacity  is  open  upon  the  increase,  and  discharge  it  by  another 
while  upon  the  decrease.  The  bellows  are  placed  behind  the 
forge,  with  a  pipe  of  communication  through  the  back  to  the  fire, 
and  are  worked  by  means  of  a  lever,  called  a  rocker.  See 
Plate  33.  Fig,  E. 

Bench,  an  immoveable  table,  to  which  one  or  more  vices  are 
fixed,  for  filing,  drilling,  and  putting  work  together.  See  Plate 
34. 

Blood-red  Heat,  the  degree  of  heat  which  is  only  necessary  to 
reduce  the  protuberances  of  the  iron  by  the  hammer,  in  order 
to  prepare  it  for  the  file,  the  iron  being  previously  brought  to  its 
shape.  This  heat  is  also  used  in  punching  small  pieces  of 
iron,  §  13. 

Bolster,  a  tool  used  for  punching  holes,  and  for  making  bolts. 

See  Plate  33.  Fig.  1. 
Brace,  an  instrument  into  which  a  rimer  is  fixed,  also  part  of  the 

press  drill. 

Breast  Plate,  that  in  which  the  end  of  the  drill  opposite  the 
boring  end  is  inserted,  §  8. 

Brittleness  in  iron  is  a  want  of  tenacity  or  strength,  so  as  to  be 
easily  broken  by  pressure  or  impact.  When  iron  is  made  too 
hot,  so  as  to  be  nearly  in  a  state  of  fusion,  it  becomes  so  brittle 
as  to  prevent  forging,  and  so  hard  as  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
file.    This  is  also  the  disposition  of  cast  iron. 

Broad  Chapt  Hand-vice,  §  6. 


SMITHING. 


279 


Burnisher,  an  instrument  used  in  polishing,  §  15. 

C. 

Callipers,  a  species  of  compasses,  with  legs  of  a  circular  form, 
used  to  take  the  thickness  or  diameter  of  work,  either  circular 
or  flat ;  used  also  to  take  the  interior  size  of  holes. 

Cast  Iron,  §  20. 

Cast  Steel,  §  20. 

Cementation,  is  the  process  of  converting  iron  into  steel,  which 
is  done  by  stratifying  bars  of  iron  in  charcoal,  igniting  it,  and 
letting  it  continue  in  a  kiln  in  that  state  for  five  or  six  days,  by 
which  the  carbon  of  the  charcoal  is  absorbed  by  the  iron,  and 
causes  it  to  become  steel. 

Chaps,  the  two  planes  or  flat  parts  of  a  vice  or  pair  of  tongs  or 
plyers,  for  holding  any  thing  fast,  which  are  generally  roughed 
with  teeth. 

Chisel,  a  tool  with  the  lower  part  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  for 
cutting  iron  plate  or  bar,  and  with  the  upper  part  flat,  to  receive 
the  blows  of  a  hammer,  in  order  to  force  the  cutting  edge  through 
the  substanc*?  of  the  iron.    For  its  use,  see  §  15. 

Cold  Short  Iron,  iron  in  an  impure  state,  §  20. 

Compasses,  an  instrument  with  two  long  legs,  working  on  a  centre 
pin  at  one  extremity  ;  used  for  drawing  circles,  measuring  dis- 
tances, setting  out  work,  &;c. 

CouNTER-siNK,  a  tool  uscd  to  make  the  necessary  bevel,  to  admit 
the  bead  of  a  screw,  rivet,  &;c.    See  Joinery,  §  36. 

Crooked  Nosed  Tongs,  §  3. 

D. 

Draw,  to  draw  is  the  act  of  lengthening  a  bar  of  iron  by  hammer- 
ing, also  wire  reduced  from  any  size  to  a  smaller,  is  said  to  be 
drawn. 

Drill,  a  boring  tool  which  forms  a  cylindric  hole  with  the  greatest 


280 


SMITHING. 


exactness.    Drills  are  particularly  used  where  the  substance  ii 
too  great  for  the  operation  of  the  punch,  or  where  very  exact 
cylindric  holes  are  required,  §  8. 
Drill  Bow,  §  8. 

E. 

Emery,  a  very  fine  powder,  prepared  from  iron,  used  in  polish- 
ing,  §  15. 

F. 

File,  §  15. 
Filing,  §  15. 

FiNE-TOOTHED  FiLE,  §  15. 

Flame  Heat,  is  that  which  is  required  in  forming  the  iron  from 
its  original  shape.  This  degree  of  heat  is  also  required  in  up- 
setting, §  13. 

Flux,  any  substance,  which^  mingled  with  a  body,  accelerates  its 
melting.  Fluxes  are  salt,  bone-ash,  charcoal,  lime-stone, 
borax,  &;c. 

Forge,  to  form  a  piece  of  iron  into  any  required  figure  or  shape, 
by  means  of  heat  and  the  hammer,  or  to  weld  several  pieces  of 
iron,  §  13. 

Forge,  the  furnace  for  heating  the  iron  so  as  to  become  mallea- 
ble, and  thence  prepare  it  for  forging,  §  1. 

G. 

Gauge,  an  instrument  for  taking  the  size  of  any  bar,  &;c.  made 
from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  any  size,  is  a  piece  of  iron  with 
regular  notches  of  the  sizes  required. 

Grind-stone,  used  for  sharpening  tools,  &;c.  used  also  previous 
to  the  file  in  many  cases. 

H. 

Hammers  used  by  smiths  are  of  four  kinds,  viz.  tne  nand-hammer. 


SMITHING. 


281 


the  up-hand  sledge,  the  about  sledge,  and  the  riveting  ham- 
mer, §  4. 

Hand  Hammer,  that  which  is  held  by  one  hand  while  the  iron  is 

held  by  the  other,  for  smoothing  work.    Hand  hammers  are  of 

different  sizes,  §  4. 
Hand  Vice,  used  for  turning  about  small  pieces  of  iron,  while 

filing  on  the  large  vice,  which  would  otherwise  be  too  small  for 

the  hand  to  command  with  sufficient  povv'er,  §  G 
Hearth  Sxaff,  a  bar  or  poker  of  iron  for  stirring  the  fire. 
Heats,  the  several  degrees  or  intensities  of  heat  necessary  for 

performing  certain  operations  of  forging.    Heats  are  of  three 

kinds,  viz.  blood-red  heat,  white-flame  heat,  sparkling  or  weld-  * 

ing  heat,  §  13. 

Hood,  the  lower  part  of  the  chimney,  expanding  in  its  horizontal 
dimension  downwards  from  the  flue  to  its  mouth,  which  is  con- 
siderably above  the  hearth  of  the  forge.    See  Plate  33.  Fig,  B- 

HoT  Short  Iron,  iron  in  an  impure  state,  §  20. 

Hovel,  the  same  as  Hood. 

I. 

Ingot,  a  mass  of  metal. 

Iron,  the  material  used  by  smiths,  §  20.  Ornamental  work,  such 
as  brackets  and  lanjp  irons,  is  charged  at  least  one  third  more 
than  plain  hammered  work,  such  as  rails,  window  bars,  &c. 
and  sometimes  more  than  twice  the  sum,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  ornament. 

L. 

Lathe,  an  instrument  used  in  turning  rounds,  ovals,  &;c.  See 
Plate  34.  Fig.  H. 

M. 

Mandril,  a  cylindric  pin  of  iron,  used  to  perfect  a  hole  after  the 
2  M 


2S2 


SMITHING. 


punch ;  also  a  conical  tool  of  iron  three  or  four  feet  high,  used 
for  making  rings,  or  other  circular  work ;  also  a  part  of  the 
turning  lathe. 

N. 

Nippers,  an  instrument  like  a  pair  of  pinchers,  with  sharp  edges, 
used  to  cut  iron  wire,  &c. , 

Nut  of  a  Screw,  a  piece  of  iron  pierced  with  a  cylindric  hole, 
the  circumference  of  which  contains  a  spiral  groove.  The 
internal  spiral  of  the  nut  is  adapted  to  an  external  cylindric 
spiral  on  the  end  of  a  bolt.  The  use  of  the  bolt  and  nut  is  to 
screw  two  bodies  together,  a  head  being  wrought  on  one  end  of 
the  bolt,  in  order  to  counteract  the  action  of  the  nut.  By  this 
means  the  two  bodies  are  held  together  by  compression,  and  the 
bolt  between  the  head  and  the  nut  becomes  a  tie,  §  19. 

P. 

Pig  Iron,  short  thick  bars  of  iron,  in  the  state  in  which  it  comes 
from  the  smelting  furnace. 

Plate  or  Sheet  Iron,  plates  of  iron  flattened  by  a  roller,  of  va- 
rious sizes  and  thickness,  m 

Plyers,  small  tongs  for  holding  small  pieces  of  iron,  §  7. 

Punch,  a  kind  of  chisel  with  two  flat  ends  for  piercing  iron  by  a 
hammer,  one  end  which  has  the  greater  area  receives  the  blows 
of  the  hammer,  and  the  other,  which  has  the  less,  makes  its 
way  through  the  iron,  and  forms  a  hole,  §  14, 

R. 

Red  Sear,  is  when  the  iron  is  made  so  hot  as  to  crack  by  the 
hammer. 

Rimer,  a  tapering  instrument,  square,  triangular,  &c.  used  to 

enlarge  holes.    See  Joinery,  §  37. 
Rivet,  to  fasten  the  end  of  a  pin  or  bolt  by  battering  the  end  of  it. 


SMITHING. 


283 


Wo^>  Siiif^  01  RoLREE,  the  lever  which  gives  motion  to  the 
bellows. 

Rod  Iron,  smuU  Sdfs  :>f  iron,  square,  round,  or  flat. 

Rounding  Tool,  a  tool  used  for  rounding  a  bar  of  iron,  of  two 
pieces,  each  with  a  semi^csrcular  cavity,  accordinj;  to  the  size 
wanted;  one  piece  is  fixed  into  the  anvil,  while  the  other,  held 
by  a  rod  or  handle,  is  applied  over  the  iron,  and  is  struck  with 
a  hammer. 

Rubber,  the  file  which  is  first  used  upon  the  iron  in  reducing  the 
protuberant  parts  left  by  the  hammer ;  it  has  fewer  teeth  on  the 
same  area  than  any  other  file,  §  15. 

S. 

Saws,  §  11. 

Scales,  the  laminated  parts  accumulated  on  the  surface  of  the  iron 
by  heat. 

Screw,  a  pin  with  a  spiral  groove  cut  within  the  surface  of  a 
cylinder,  and  with  a  nut  having  a  hole  adapted  thereto, 
§  19. 

Screw  Driver,  a  tool  used  to  turn  screws  into  their  places. 
Screw  Plate,  that  which  cuts  the  spiral  groove  within  the  cylin- 

dric  surface  of  the  pin,  §  9. 
Screw  Threads,  the  parts  which  are  left  standing  between  the 

spiral  grooves  of  the  screw. 
Shears,  §  10. 

Shut,  the  same  as  weld,  which  see. 

Side  Set,  a  hammer  used  to  set  shoulders  of  rivets  to  a  true  square 

or  bevel,  as  required. 
Slice,  the  instrument  for  beating  the  fire  close. 
Smooth-toothed  File,  the  finest  of  all  the  files,  and  the  last  used 

in  polishing  the  surface,  §  15. 
Sparkling  Heat,  the  intensity  necessary  in  welding  two  or  more 

pieces  of  iron  together,  §  13. 
Square,  an  instrument  used  to  examine  if  the  work  be  done  to  a 


SMiTMLNG. 


right  angle ;  for  a  particular  description,  See  Joinery,  §  36. 

The  smith's  square  is  all  iron. 
Square-nosed  Hand  Vice,  §  6. 
Steel,  §  20. 

Swages,  all  instruments  used  to  give  the  form  or  contour  of  any 
moulding,  &c.  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  rounding  tool. 

T. 

Tap,  a  tapering  pin  of  the  form  of  a  conic  frustum,  approaching 
very  nearly  to  a  cylinder,  with  a  spiral  groove  cut  on  its  sur- 
face,  for  making  the  interior  or  female  spirals  of  a  screw  nut, 
§9. 

Tap- Wrench,  an  instrument  used  to  turn  the  tap  in  making 
screws. 

Tongs,  an  instrument  with  long  handles,  used  for  holding  pieces 

of  hot  iron  in  the  operation  of  forging.    Some  are  straight 

nosed,  others  crooked  nosed. 
Tripoli,  a  species  of  argillaceous  earth,  reduced  to  a  very  fine 

powder,  and  used  in  polishing  the  finest  works,  is  also  used  in 

polishing  marbles,  minerals,  &;c. 
TuE  Iron,  the  plate  on  the  back  of  the  forge,  which  receives  the 

small  end  of  the  taper  pipe,  which  comes  from  the  bellows  for 

convey  ing  the  stream  of  air  to  the  fire. 

U. 

Ur-HAND  Sledge,  §  4. 
Up-settino,  §  13. 

V. 

V^iCE,  an  instrument  for  holding  any  thing  fast,  §  5. 

W. 

Washer,  the  instrument  for  damping  the  fire. 


SMITHING. 


285 


Washek,  a  piece  of  flat  iron  with  a  hole  placed  between  the  nut 
of  a  screw  and  the  wood,  to  prevent  the  wood  being  gulled. 

Welding,  is  that  intimate  union  produced  between  the  surfaces  of 
two  pieces  of  malleable  metal  when  heated  almost  to  fusion  and 
hammered.  This  union  is  so  strong,  that  when  two  bars  of 
metal  are  properly  welded,  the  parts  thus  joined  are  relatively 
as  strong  as  any  other  part.  Only  two  of  the  old  metals  wore 
capable  of  a  firm  union  by  welding,  namely,  platina  and  iron, 
the  same  property  belongs  to  the  newly  discovered  metals,  po- 
tassium  and  sodium. 

Welding  Heat,  the  same  as  sparkling  heat,  §  13. 

White-flame  Heat,  the  intensity  necessary  in  forming  a  piece 
of  iron  into  another  shape,  §  13. 

Wrench,  a  forked  instrument  used  in  screwing  up  of  nuts. 


TUENING. 


§  1.  TuKNiNG  in  general  is  the  art  of  reducing  any  material  to 
a  certain  required  form,  by  revolving  the  material  according  to 
a  given  law,  in  a  machine  called  a  lathe,  and  cutting  away  the  su- 
perfluous  substance  with  a  gouge  or  chisel,  which  is  held  steady 
upon  a  rest,  until  the  surface  be  sufficiently  reduced :  sometimes 
pressing  the  cutting  edge  gently  forwards,  and  sometimes  sidewise, 
according  to  the  design,  until  it  has  obtained  the  figure  and  dimen- 
sions required. 

The  art  of  turning  is  of  very  remote  date.  The  invention  is 
ascribed  by  Diodorus  Siculus  to  Talus,  a  grandson  of  Daedalus  ; 
but  Pliny  says  it  was  invented  by  Theodore  of  Samos,  and  men- 
tions one  Thericles  as  being  famed  for  his  dexterity  in  this  art.  By 
means  of  the  lathe,  the  ancients  formed  vases,  which  they  enriched 
with  figures  and  ornaments  in  basso  relievo. 

The  Greek  and  Latin  authors  make  frequent  mention  of  the 
lathe  ;  and  it  was  a  proverb  among  them  to  say  a  thing  was  formed 
by  it  when  the  parts  were  delicate,  and  their  proportions  correct. 

Turning  is  performed  either  by  the  body  being  continually  re- 
volved, or  by  the  rotation  being  made  backwards  and  forwards ; 
but  the  latter  mode  is  attended  with  a  loss  of  time. 

The  materials  employed  in  turning,  are  wood,  ivory,  brass,  iron, 
stone,  &c. 

Turning  is  also  of  different  kinds,  as  circular  turning,  elliptic 
turning,  and  swash  turning ;  these  may  be  said  to  be  the  simple 
movements  of  the  machine,  according  to  geometrical  principles, 
but  by  means  of  moulds,  an  indefinite  number  of  things  may  be 
formed  in  this  way ;  but  in  all  of  them,  suppose  for  a  single  revo- 


TURNING. 


287 


lution  of  the  machine,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  instrument  is  held 
immoveable  to  the*  same  point  of  space,  and  the  machine  is  so 
regulated,  as  to  bring  the  different  parts  of  the  intended  surface 
to  the  cutting  edge  in  its  revolution.  In  practice,  instead  of  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  instrument  being  exactly  at  the  same  place 
when  a  considerable  surface  is  to  be  wrought,  it  is  made  to  tra- 
verse the  surface,  that  is,  to  have  a  slow  lateral  movement  in  the 
direction  of  the  intended  form,  and  by  this  means  to  shave  ofl 
spiral  turnings. 


§  2.  Circular  Turning 

Is  the  art  of  forming  bodies  of  wood,  ivory,  metal,  stone,  &c. 
by  revolving  the  body  upon  a  given  straight  line,  as  an  axis  in  a 
machine,  while  the  cutting  edge  of  a  tool  is  held  at  such  distance, 
as  to  cut  or  shave  off  the  prominent  parts  in  thin  slices,  as  the 
body  revolves,  until  it  acquires  the  intended  form. 

From  the  definition  here  given,  it  is  evident,  that  all  points  ol 
the  solid  in  the  act  of  turning,  will  describe  the  circumference  of 
circles  in  planes,  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  which  will  pass  through 
their  centres. 

Every  section  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  turned  body, 
will  have  the  two  parts  on  each  side  of  the  axis  equal  and  similar 
figures:  and  any  straight  line  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and  ter- 
minated by  the  sides  of  the  section,  would  be  bisected  by  the  said 
axis. 

For  the  sake  of  perspicuity,  we  shall  call  any  section  through 
the  axis,  the  axal  section,  that  is,  a  section  of  the  body  in  which 
the  axis  would  be  entirely  in  its  plane  ;  the  design  of  the  turning 
depends  entirely  upon  this  section,  which,  if  it  be  a  circle,  the 
body  when  turned  will  be  a  sphere,  and  if  an  ellipse,  it  will  be  a 
spheroid,  &c.  This  is  the  most  useful  of  all  kinds  of  turning, 
and  essential  in  the  construction  of  many  kinds  of  engines  and 


288 


TURNING. 


machinery,  where  every  other  method  would  fail,  as  not  being 
sufficient  to  give  the  desired  accuracy.  Its  use  in  fancy  work  is 
beyond  descrip.tion,  and  the  labour  thereby  rendered  easy.  The 
practice  will  be  obtained  better  from  actual  practice  of  the  busi- 
ness,  than  from  any  description. 

The  following  are  the  descriptions  of  the  most  useful  wood 
lathes,  which  have  the  same  principles  in  common  with  those  for 
turning  metals. 


§  3.  Lathes  in  general. 

Lathes  are  of  several  kinds,  as  the  jyole  lathe,  foot  lathe,  and 
the  wheel  lathe,  which  is  used  in  very  large  work,  and  is  revolved 
by  manual  strength.  It  consists  of  a  great  wheel  with  a  winch 
handle  at  the  end  of  its  axle,  by  which  the  force  is  communicated. 
There  are  other  lathes  used  for  very  largo  work,  driven  either  by 
steam  engines,  water  wheels,  or  by  horse  power.  All  these  ought 
to  be  so  contrived,  that  the  works  may  be  stopped,  even  though 
the  power  be  still  exerted. 


§  4.  The  Pole  Lathe, 

The  pole  lathe  consists  of  the  following  parts,  several  of  which 
are  common  to  every  other  description ;  the  legs  or  stiles  for  sup 
porting  it,  the  shears  horizontally  fixed  with  a  parallel  cavity  be 
tween  them  for  conducting  the  puppets  ;  the  puppets  sit  vertically, 
and  are  made  to  slide  between  the  cheeks  of  the  shears,  the  one 
being  made  to  receive  the  screw,  and  the  other  to  receive  the 
conical  point,  which  is  fixed  horizontally  in  one  puppet  for  sup- 
porting one  end  of  the  piece  to  be  turned  in  its  axis,  the  screw 
with  another  point  supporting  the  other  end  of  the  piece  to  be 
lurned,  by  means  of  the  screw,  the  body  may  be  fastened  or  slack- 


TURNING. 


2811 


ened  at  pleasure  ;  the  rest  for  the  tool  fixed  horizontally  to  ihe 
puppets,  and  parallel  to  the  cheeks,  the  tenons  made  on  the  lower 
end  of  the  puppets,  in  order  to  form  a  shoulder  for  re-acting 
against  the  wedges  below,  the  wedges  for  fastening  the  puppets  so 
as  to  regulate  them  to  any  distance  ;  the  treadle  and  cross  treadle 
for  the  foot,  in  order  to  give  a  reciprocal  rotation  to  the  body  to 
be  turned,  by  means  of  a  string  coiled  round  it,  and  an  elastic 
pole  which  re-acts  against  the  string  and  the  pressure  of  the  foot ; 
the  pole  for  pulling  up  the  treadle  and  acting  reciprocally  against 
he  pressure  of  the  foot,  the  string  for  turning  round  the  body  by 
the  pressure  of  the  foot  downwards,  and  the  re-action  of  the  pole 
upwards. 

The  legs  or  stiles  may  be  about  two  feet  ten  inches  high,  and 
are  tenoned  into  the  cheeks  at  their  upper  ends,  and  fixed  by  pins 
or  screws,  the  latter  is  preferable.  In  turning  large  work,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  brace  the  legs  and  cheeks  to  the  floor  or  ceiling, 
as  may  be  found  convenient,  otherwise  the  work  will  be  liable  to 
tremble.  The  puppets  are  pieces  of  a  square  section,  and  ought 
to  be  sufficiently  strong  to  answer  every  description  of  work. 

The  pole  lathe  is  used  in  turning  heavy  or  long  work,  the  string 
is  coiled  round  the  material,  which  performs  the  office  of  a  man- 
drel :  but  for  general  use  this  kind  of  lathe  is  not  so  convenient 
as  that  which  is  called  the  foot  lathe  ;  and  besides  this,  there  is  a 
loss  of  time  in  making  the  alternate  revolutions.  The  pole  lathe 
is  now  but  little  used.  It  is  sometimes,  as  well  as  other  lathes, 
tightened  with  a  screw  and  washer. 

This  lathe  has  two  puppets  with  a  pin  or  centre  in  each,  the 
right  centre  is  moveable  by  a  screw,  but  the  left  puppet  with  the 
centre  is  generally  stationary,  and  the  work  is  supported  upon  the 
centres.  The  rest  is  moveable  between  the  shears,  and  fastened 
by  means  of  a  screw  bolt.  In  beginning  to  operate  with  this 
machine,  there  must  be  a  small  part  turned,  in  order  to  act  as  a 
pulley. 

No.  19  " 


290 


TURxNLNG. 


§  6.  Foot  Lathe, 

The  foot  lathe  consists  of  machinery  and  a  frame  for  sustaining 
it.  The  parts  of  the  machinery  are  the  treadle,  the  crank  hook, 
the  great  wheel  or  fly,  the  band,  and  the  mandrel ,  the  parts  of 
the  frame  are  the  feet,  the  legs,  the  back  board  or  b-^nch,  the  pil- 
lars, the  puppet  bar  or  bed,  the  puppets,  and  the  rest. 

The  treadle  or  foot  board  is  put  into  alternate  motion  by  the 
pressure  of  the  foot  downwards,  and  the  momentum  of  the  fly- 
wheel upwards  ;  the  board  or  frame  of  the  treadle  is  screwed  to 
an  axle,  on  which  it  turns. 

The  connecting  rod  or  crank  hook  is  hooked  into  a  staple  in  the 
middle  of  the  treadle  board,  and  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened 
at  pleasure  by  screwed  hooks  ;  it  may  either  be  constructed  of 
iron  or  brass,  but  is  most  frequently  of  iron,  and  even  sometimes 
of  leather. 

The  fool  wheel  or  fly  is  put  into  motion  by  means  of  the  treadle 
and  a  crank  on  the  arber  of  the  wheel ;  the  motion  is  communi- 
cated from  the  treadle  by  the  crank  hook  or  connecting  rod,  and 
fastened  to  the  crank  of  the  wheel  by  a  collar,  embracing  and 
turning  round  at  the  upper  end.  The  foot  pushes  down  the  treadle, 
and  gives  the  wheel  a  rotative  motion,  and  when  the  crank  has 
been  drawn  to  the  lowest  point,  the  momentum  which  the  wheel 
has  thus  acquired  draws  up  the  treadle,  and  thus  by  the  alternate 
pressure  of  the  foot,  and  the  momentum  of  the  wheel,  the  motion 
is  continued.  The  wheel  was  formerly  constructed  of  wood,  but 
now  generally  of  cast  iron ;  the  general  surface  of  the  exterior 
side  of  the  rim,  is  sometimes  conical,  and  cut  with  three  or  four 
angular  grooves,  which  are  best  when  recessed  with  an  angle,  so 
as  not  to  have  a  flat  bottom  :  this  form  is  advantageous,  on  account 
of  the  band  having  more  power  to  turn  the  wheel.  Some  wheels 
have  two  or  more  rims,  in  order  to  give  diflerent  degrees  of  velo- 
city or  to  increase  the  power.  The  axle  of  the  wheel  is  made  of 
^rodght  iron,  except  the  centres,  and  bent  in  the  middle,  to  form 


TURNING. 


291 


the  crank  :  the  centres  at  the  ends  are  made  of  hard  steel,  welded 
to  the  iron  part  of  the  axle.  The  band  connects  the  fly  and  man- 
drel, and  is  mostly  made  of  cat-gut  of  such  thickness  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  work  may  require.  It  is  either  spliced  at  the  joining,  ' 
or  the  two  ends  fastened  together  by  hooks  and  eyes  ;  the  band 
n»ay  be  either  tightened  by  grooves  in  the  great  wheel,  or  in  the 
pulley  of  the  mandrel,  or  by  sliding  pieces  in  the  legs. 

The  mandrel  consists  of  an  axle  and  pulley.  The  axle  is  con- 
structed of  wrought  iron,  except  the  part  which  turns  in  the  collar, 
and  which  ought  to  be  of  hardened  steel,  welded  round  the  iron 
part.  The  whole  of  the  axle  of  the  mandrel  ought  to  be  turned 
true  in  a  lathe.  It  receives  a  supply  of  oil  from  a  small  hole  drilled 
down  from  the  top  of  the  puppet,  and  through  the  steel  collar. 

The  manner  of  holding  the  work,  is  very  different  and  various, 
almost  in  every  instance.  In  general  it  is  held  in  pieces  of  wood 
called  chucks,  which  are  screwed  or  cemented  upon  the  nose  of 
the  mandrel.  The  socket  for  the  mandrel  to  work  in  has  been 
generally  made  in  the  back  screw,  but  some  experienced  work- 
men prefer  it  to  be  in  the  mandrel.  The  mandrel  is  sustained  at 
one  end  by  the  back  centre,  and  at  the  other  end  by  the  steel  col- 
lar in  the  middle  of  the  puppet  head :  the  right  hand  extremity, 
called  the  nose,  projects  over  the  puppet,  and  terminates  in  a 
screw,  which  is  sometimes  convex,  sometimes  concave,  and  some- 
times both  :  but  if  there  is  only  one,  the  convex  or  male  screw  is 
generally  preferred.  The  pulley  has  generally  three  or  sometimes 
four  grooves  of  different  sizes  to  receive  the  band,  and  by  this 
means  it  may  be  turned  with  different  degrees  of  velocity,  and 
made  to  accommodate  the  length  of  the  band.  The  edge  of  the 
pulley  is  bevelled  in  the  same  degree  as  the  edge  of  the  fly-whee' 
and  with  the  same  number  of  grooves,  but  the  lesser  diameter  of 
the  pulley  is  upon  the  same  side  as  the  greater  diameter  of  the 
fly-wheel,  and  consequently,  the  greater  diameter  of  the  pulley 
upon  the  same  size  as  the  lesser  diameter  of  the  fly-v/heel. 

The  parts  of  the  frame  are  as  follows  :  the  two  feet  are  screv/- 
ed  to  the  floor,  and  mortised  to  receive  the  legs,  which  are  fixed 


292 


TURNING, 


thereon.  Sometimes  there  is  only  one  leg"  to  each  foot,  but  in  the 
best  constructed  lathes  there  are  two ;  the  top  of  the  legs  are 
tenoned,  which  are  received  by  the  mortises  in  the  bearers  at  the 
top,  and  fixed  therein. 

The  back  board  is  fixed  to  the  bearers,  and  supports  two  pillars 
whi'^.h  are  fixed  to  it,  one  being  at  each  end  in  a  vertical  plane 
wi<h  each  leg  or  pair  of  legs.  The  puppet  bar,  or  bed,  or  bearer, 
IS  fastened  at  each  end  into  each  pillar,  with  mortise  and  tenon  ; 
the  common  foot  lathes  have  no  back  board,  and  the  bed  consists 
of  two  parallel  parts,  called  by  some  shears,  the  vertical  sides  of 
which  form  a  cavity  between  them.  The  poppets  are  so  constructed 
as  to  be  moveable  upon,  and  fastened  to  the  bar  at  pleasure,  by 
means  of  a  screw  below  the  bed ;  they  are  generally  three  in 
number,  the  two  extreme  ones  of  which  have  pins  with  centres, 
and  the  middle  one  has  a  collar  for  receiving  the  ends  of  the  man 
drel.  In  turning  of  light  work,  not  very  long,  the  right  hand  and 
middle  puppets  are  used,  and  the  work  is  sustained  by  a  chuck 
fastened  to  the  end  or  nose  of  the  mandrel.  In  tJie  common  lathes, 
the  puppets  are  made  of  wood,  and  tenoned  below,  to  fit  the  hol- 
low between  the  shears  or  bed,  and  the  tenons  are  made  suffi-. 
cientl}'  long  to  come  below,  so  as  to  receive  wedges  through  a 
mortise  cut  therein,  and  by  this  means  to  fix  them.  In  the  best 
constructed  lathes,  the  puppets  are  made  of  cast  iron,  and  move- 
able  also  upon  a  cast  iron  bearer,  and  fixed  to  the  required  distance 
by  a  vertical  screw  underneath,  which  comes  in  contact  with  a 
horizontal  plate  or  washer  below  the  said  bar.  The  puppet  which 
receives  the  end  of  the  mandrel  for  holding  th'^  work  has  a  cylin- 
dric  hole  with  a  conic  shoulder,  through  its  upper  end,  and  with 
the  axis  is  directed  to  the  centres  in  the  other  puppet.  The  fore 
puppet  has  a  cylindric  hole  through  its  top,  to  receive  a  polished 
pointed  rod,  which  is  moved  by  a  screw  working  in  a  collar.  The 
puppets  are  made  so  as  to  take  off*  the  bar  at  pleasure  ;  they  are 
made  forked  below,  and  saddled  upon  the  two  upper  sides  of  the 
bar.  The  sides  or  prongs  are  made  very  stout,  and  mortised  to 
receive  a  sh(»rt  iron  bar,  which  encloses  the  lower  part.  Through 


TURiNING. 


293 


receive  a  short  iron  bar,  which  encloses  the  lower  psirt.  Through 
the  middle  of  this  bar,  a  screw  passes  underneath,  and  comes  in 
contact  with  a  thin  washer  or  plate  on  the  under  side  of  the  bed, 
to  prevent  bruising  it.  In  order  to  move  the  puppets  freely,  and 
to  support  them  firmly,  the  bed  ought  to  be  made  very  straight,  ^nd 
of  sufficient  strength  to  preserve  its  figure. 

The  rest  is  made  so  as  to  be  moveable  round  the  work,  and 
fixed  in  any  position,  and  may  be  conducted  and  fastened  to  any 
part  of  the  bed. 

The  framing  and  the  machmery  are  thus  connected :  the  treadle 
is  fixed  into  the  feet,  or  in  brackets  fixed  in  the  back  angles  form- 
ed  by  the  legs  and  the  feet :  the  fly  is  sustained  at  each  end  by  a 
transverse  piece  moveable  up  and  down  in  a  frame,  and  made  sta- 
tionary  in  any  part  it  is  moved  to,  and  thus  it  may  either  accom- 
modate  the  length  of  the  band  or  the  crank  hook.  The  mandrel 
is  sustained  at  one  end  by  the  back  centre,  which  is  fastened  into 
the  head  of  the  left  puppet,  and  the  other  into  the  steel  collar  as 
before  mentioned. 

The  machinery  is  thus  put  in  motion  :  Suppose  the  crank  to  be 
risised  about  half  a  revolution  from  the  bottom,  then  with  consider- 
able force  pressing  the  treadle  downwards,  the  fly-wheel  will  be 
put  in  motion,  but  if  the  force  communicated  is  not  sufiicient  to 
carry  it  round,  it  must  be  pressed  down  in  the  act  of  descending, 
as  often  as  may  be  cufficient  io  put  it  in  rotation,  in  the  required 
direction  of  motion ;  at  every  time  the  treadle  begins  to  descend, 
press  with  the  foot.  The  momentum  which  the  fly  has  thus  ac 
quired,  will  be  sufficient  to  carry  it  round,  even  though  retarded  in 
a  certain  degree  by  an  obstacle,  until  it  receive  an  additional  im- 
pulse  by  the  foot  acting  upon  the  treadle  ;  then  by  this  momentum, 
and  the  continued  impulses,  the  motion  is  continued,  even  though 
the  force  of  the  tool  is  continually  acting  upon  the  body  in  the  act 
of  working,  and  therefore  continually  destroying  a  part  of  the  force 
exerted  upon  the  machine  ;  but  the  part  thus  destroyed  is  always 
renewed  by  an  equivalent.    The  motion  being  continued,  the  band 


294 


TURNING. 


communicates  the  rotation  to  the  mandrel,  and  the  mandrel  to  il)  " 
body,  which  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  spindle  in  the  maiim  i 
before  described. 


§  6.  A  Chuck, 

Is  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  made  to  fasten  on  the  end  of  the 
mandrel,  and  to  sustain  the  material  while  it  is  being  turned. 
Chucks  are  variously  constructed,  according  to  the  design  of  the 
thing  required  to  be  turned.  They  are  sometimes  made  of  wood, 
and  sometimes  of  metal,  particularly  of  brass.  Wooden  chucks 
have  a  cylindric  hole,  in  which  the  end  of  the  work  to  be  turned 
is  inserted,  and  are  hooped,  in  order  to  prevent  splitting  when  the 
work  is  driven  into  the  cavity  :  this  kind  of  chuck  is  that  which  is 
most  frequently  used.  The  work  is  also  sometimes  cemented  to 
the  chuck,  and  sometimes  screwed  to  it,  as  the  figure  of  the  thing 
to  be  turned  may  require.  The  end  of  the  chuck  which  is  screwed 
upon  the  nose  of  the  mandrel,  is  sometimes  a  concave  and  some- 
times a  convex  cylinder,  the  superfices  being  concentric,  or  haviug 
the  same  axis.  In  turning  small  work,  such  as  snuff-boxes,  the 
material  is  fastened  upon  a  hollow  chuck.  It  is  probable,  thai 
the  name  chuck  has  originated  from  the  work  being  driven,  jam- 
med, or  chocked  into  it. 


§  7.  Of  Took. 

The  principal  tools  employed  in  turning,  are  gouges,  chisels, 
right-side  tools,  left-side  tools,  round  tools,  point  tools,  drills,  inside 
tools,  screw  tools,  flat  tools,  square  tools,  triangular  tools,  turning 
gravers,  parting  tools,  calipers,  &;c. 


TURNING. 


295 


§  8.  The  Gouge  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  1.) 

Is  used  for  roughing  wood  into  its  intended  form  ;  also  in  finish, 
iiig  hollows  :  the  cutting  edge  is  rounded.  In  turning,  the  gouge 
must  be  held  with  an  inclination,  and  the  handle  considerably  de- 
pressed, so  that  the  side  or  basil  of  the  gouge  comes  very  nearly  in 
a  tangent  to  the  circumference  of  the  work,  or  in  the  tangent  of  a 
less  circle,  and  consequently  the  cutting  edge  of  the  gouge  will  be 
above  the  axis.  In  the  use  of  this  tool,  the  rest  is  generally  upon 
a  level  with  the  axis.  Gouges  are  of  various  sizes,  according  to 
the  work. 


§  9.  The  Chisel  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  2.) 

Is  used  after  the  work  is  roughed  into  form  by  the  gouge  to  finish 
cylindric,  conic,  or  convex  bodies.  In  the  use  of  this  tool,  the 
bank  or  horizontal  part  of  the  rest,  is  raised  considerably  above 
the  centre  of  the  work,  so  as  to  be  nearly  upon  a  level  with  the 
surface,  and  the  cutting  edge  must  stand  obliquely  to  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder,  so  as  to  prevent  either  angle  from  running  into  the 
work  ;  the  chisel  ought  to  traverse  the  work  gradually,  but  not  too 
fast,  as  otherwise  it  will  leave  a  roughness  on  the  surface.  This 
tool  is  used  principally  for  soft  wood.  The  basil  must  be  made 
from  both  sides.  Chisels  are  of  various  sizes,  from  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  to  two  incnes  and  a  half:  these  are  convenient  in  running 
mouldings  and  cleanmg  the  bottoms  of  grooves. 


§  10.  RighuSide  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  3.) 

Are  used  for  turning  of  cavities  of  hollow  cylinders,  or  thosa 
hollows  which  have  only  one  internal  angle  in  turning  both  the 


TURNING. 


bottom  and  the  side  :  for  this  purpose,  the  tool  is  made  to  cut  boih 
by  its  end  and  side-edge,  so  that  these  two  cutting  edges  form  an 
angle  with  each  other  rather  acute.  This  tool  must  be  held  on  a 
level  with  the  axis  of  the  work.  Side  tools  are  made  of  differ* 
widths,  to  suit  various  cavities.  The  basil  is  only  made  from 
side  of  the  tool.  The  flat  side  is  upwards,  and  consequently,  the 
basil  downwards 


§  11.  Left.  Side  Tools 

Are  not  used  in  internal  work,  as  the  right-side  tools,  but  up 
he  left  side  of  convex  surfaces,  such  as  spheres,  torus  mouldings, 
ovolos,  &;c.  The  acute  angle  is  upon  the  contrary  side  of  this 
tool  to  the  other.  Left-side  tools  arc  likewise  made  to  various 
widths. 


§  12.  Round  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  4.) 

Are  used  for  turning  concave  mouldings,  and  are  of  various? 
widths,  to  adapt  themselves  thereto. 


§  13.  Point  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  5.) 

Are  used  for  various  purposes,  as  turning  of  mouldings,  and  the 
shoulders  of  screws,  for  which  they  are  particularly  useful  ;  they 
are  sometimes  employed  in  turning  the  flat  ends  of  work. 


§  14.  Drills  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  6.) 

Are  used  for  making  holes  ;  the  work  is  fixed  upon  a  chuck,  but 
previous  to  this,  the  commencement  of  the  hole  is  made  with  a 


TURNING. 


297 


point  tool ;  the  point  of  the  drill  is  presented  to  this  small  cavity 
and  held  in  the  line  of  the  axis;  then  by  pressing  forward  while 
the  lathe  is  turning,  the  hole  will  be  bored  to  any  required  depth  ; 
the  drill  should  be  drawn  out  once  or  several  times,  or  the  core 
will  clog  it,  and  prevent  it  from  operating. 


§  15.  Inside  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  7,  8,  9.) 

Are  employed  for  turning  out  hollows  and  cups  of  all  dcscrip. 
tions,  and  have  various  forms,  according  to  the  curvature  or  angles 
of  the  work. 


§  16.  Screw  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  10,  11.), 


Are  employed  in  cutting  of  screws  of  various  sizes  of  threads. 
The  work  must  first  be  turned  truly  cylindrical,  then  by  applying 
the  tool  to  the  end,  and  pressing  gradually  with  a  uniform  motion 
in  the  length  of  the  axis,  t-he  screw  will  be  produced 


§  17  Flat  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Pig.  14.^ 
Are  used  for  turning  cylindric  or  conic  suifaces. 


§  18.  Square  Tools. 

Are  intended  for  brass  turning  only.    In  these,  the  cutting  edges 

always  terminate  with  right  angles. 
2  o 


298 


TURNING. 


§  19.  Triangular  Tools 

Are  used  for  turning  iron  and  steel.  They  are  of  a  triangular 
section,  with  three  cutting  edges,  and  are  employed  in  turning 
planes  or  flat  ends,  also  in  the  concave  surface  of  the  hollow  bo- 
dies, as  in  cylindric  and  conic  cavities. 


§  20.  Turning  Gravers  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  13.) 

Are  used  for  turning  steel  and  iron,  in  roughing  out  the  work, 
though  some  works  may  be  entirely  finished  by  them.  They  are 
nearly  the  same  shape  as  the  tool  used  by  engravers  upon  copper. 


§  21.  Parting  Tools  (Pl.  XL.  Fig.  14.) 

Are  used  for  maki  ng  deep  incisions,  for  cutting  off  a  part  of 
work,  grooving,  &c. 

All  these  tools  are  bevelled  or  basilled  from  one  side,  except  the 
chisel  for  soft  wood,  which  is  basilled  from  each  side,  and  are  all 
held  upon  a  level  with  the  axis,  except  the  chisel. 


§22.  Callipers 
Are  used  for  taking  the  diameters  of  rotund  bodies. 


TURNiiNG.  2im 

§  23.  Description  of  the  Plates,  with  the  Methods  of  Turning  EL 
liptic  Boards,  Swash,  and  other  Kinds  of  Work. 

PLATE  XXXV. 

The  Pole  Lathe. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  pole  lathe,  as  seen  from  the  back. 

A  end  of  the  ibot-board  or  treadle. 

A  B  the  string  to  be  coiled  round  the  wood  to  be  turned. 

D  E  one  of  the  legs,  the  other  being  hid  in  the  view. 

E  F  the  shears  or  bed  of  the  lathe  formed  of  two  pieces,  with 
a  parallel  space  between. 

G  H,  I  K,  the  puppets,  made  moveable  in  the  parallel  space 
and  fixed  below  with  wedges  to  any  required  distance,  G  II  con. 
taining  the  fore  centre,  and  I  K  that  of  the  back  centre.  These 
centres  are  tightened  by  means  of  screws. 

L  M  the  rest. 

Fig.  2,  large  boring  collar,  with  seven  holes,  from  half  an  nich 
to  three  inches  and  a  half  diimcter. 

Fig.  3,  a  boring  collar  for  small  work.  The  holes  A  15  C  may 
be  contracted  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  a  sliding  piece  inserted  in 
a  slip  or  groove  parallel  to  the  faces.  The  sliding  piece  is  moved 
by  means  of  a  thumb  screw  at  D.  The  figure  of  the  perforation 
is  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  lower  part  of  the  slider  forming  the 
base  of  the  said  triangle  ;  then  as  a  circle  may  be  inscribed  in  an 
equilateral  triangle,  the  collar  will  fit  all  sizes  of  cylindrical  bodies, 
from  the  greatest  size  the  perforation  will  contain,  to  the  least,  and 
touch  the  body  to  be  turned  always  in  three  points,  which  are  ail 
fhat  are  necessary  to  steady  the  work  in  its  revolution.  This  ma- 
chine is  generally  constructed  of  iron. 


300 


TURNING. 


PLATE  XXXVL 

The  Foot  Lathe  in  its  general  Construction, 

A  B  the  treadle  or  foot-board. 
a  the  manner  ot"  fixing  the  treadle  to  the  floor. 
C  the  crank  hook,  hooked  into  a  staple,  and  the  end  of  the 
piece  A. 

D  the  crank  for  turning  the  fly  with  the  upper  part  of  the  crank 
hook  formed  into  a  collar  for  embracing  the  crank. 

E  the  fly-wheel  with  several  angular  grooves  cut  in  its  circum- 
ference,  in  order  to  hold  the  band  and  keep  it  from  sliding. 

F  the  pillar  for  supporting  the  end  of  the  mandrel. 

G  the  puppet  supporting  the  end  of  the  mandrel,  which  holds 
the  chuck. 

H  the  right-hand  puppet,  containing  the  fore  centre,  which  \f 
tightened  by  means  of  a  screw. 

I,  K  the  legs,  the  fly  being  supported  by  that  of  I,  the  other  end 
is  supported  by  an  upright  between  the  legs. 

L  the  mandrel,  showing  the  end  of  the  spindle  projecting  ove/ 
the  puppet  G,  in  order  to  receive  the  chuck. 

M  the  rest,  tightened  below  by  means  of  a  screw,  and  made  so 
as  to  be  fixed  in  any  position  to  the  chuck. 

N  a  foot-board. 

O  several  of  the  most  useful  tools  employed  in  turning. 


§  24.  Elliptic  Turning, 

DEFINITION. 

If  there  be  a  plane  with  any  indefinite  outline,  and  two  inflexi- 
ble right  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  if  the  plane  be 
fixed  to  an  axis  at  right  angles  therewith,  and  if  the  two  inflexible 
lines  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  f>l^ne,  and  be  so  moveable  od 


"its. Barnard. Sc. 


301 


its  surfdce,  that  one  of  them,  which  we  shall  call  the  primary  line, 
may  always  pass  through  two  fixed  points  in  the  plane,  and  through 
the  point  where  the  plane  is  intersected  by  the  axis,  and  if  the 
other  transverse  line  be  made  to  pass  or  slide  along  a  given  point, 
which  is  not  attached  to  the  plane,  but  would  remain  stationary 
even  though  the  plane  were  in  motion  ;  and  if  a  secondary  plane 
be  fixed  to  the  inflexible  lines,  parallel  to  the  primary  plane,  then 
if  the  axis  be  carried  round  while  the  point  in  the  transverse  line 
is  at  rest,  the  primary  plane  will  also  be  carried  round,  and  every 
Doint  in  it  will  describe  the  circumference  of  a  circle  :  the  secon. 
dary  plane  will  hkewise  be  carried  round,  and  will  perform  its  re- 
volutions  in  the  same  time  as  the  primary  plan?  and  the  axis,  but 
being  immoveably  fixed  to  the  rectangular  lines,  they  will  cause 
it  to  have  both  a  progressive  and  retrogressive  motion  in  the  direc- 
tion  of  the  primary  line  in  each  revolution  ;  and  lastly,  if  another 
point  at  rest  be  held  to  the  surface  of  the  secondary  plane  while 
in  motion,  it  will  either  describe  an  ellipse,  a  circle,  or  a  straight 
line.  Hence  the  describing  point  will  always  be  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  or  point,  where  the  axis  intersects  the  pri- 
mary plone. 

The  eccentricity  of  the  ellipse,  or  the  difference  of  the  axis,  will 
be  double  the  distance  between  the  stationary  point  in  the  trans- 
verse  line  and  the  axis. 

Iniitead  of  the  stationary  point,  a  circle  may  be  placed  with  its 
centre  in  this  point,  and  its  plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and 
instead  of  the  inflexible  line  moving  to  and  fro  along  two  fixed 
points  in  the  plane,  the  diametrically  opposite  parts  of  the  circum- 
ference  may  always  touch  a  pair  of  parallel  lines  on  the  revolving 
plane. 


302 


TURNING. 


PLATE  XXXVII. 

llhislrafions.  This  Plale  cxhiblls  the  various  Positions  of  the  Chuck 
for  turning  of  Elliptical  Work  at  every  Eighth  of  a  Rei^olution, 
according  to  the  foregoing  Dffnition. 

Let  A  r»  mid  E  F,  No.  1,  2,  3,  i,  5,  0,  7,  8,  be  the  two  inflexi- 
ble  lines,  intersecting  eacii  other  in  I,  at  riglit  angles,  and  let  C,  D 
be  liic  two  fixed  points.  Let  A  i5  be  clenoininated  the  primary 
line,  and  E  F  the  secondary  line,  and  let  the  lines  A  B  and  E  F 
at  right  angles,  taken  as  a  wnole,  bo  called  a  transverse  ;  also  let 
C  represent  a  primary  point,  and  let  the  describing  point  be  taken 
at  G,  in  the  line  drawn  through  C  D  produced  :  now  in  all  posi- 
tions of  ti\e  chuck,  the  primary  line  A  B  is  always  upon  the  point 
C,  and  E  F  upon  D ;  having  premised  this  in  general,  suppose, 
before  the  niacliine  begins  to  start,  that  E  F,  No.  1,  the  secondary 
line  coincides  with  E  G,  and  the  point  G  with  o,  o  being  in  the 
plane  of  ihe  figure  to  be  described  ;  then  because  A  B  always 
passes  through  C,  the  points  I  and  C  will  be  coincident,  A  B  being 
then  at  riglit  angles  to  E  F.  Let  us  now  suppose  the  motion  to 
commence,  and  let  it  perform  an  eighth  part  of  a  revolution,  as  at 
No.  2,  the  describing  point  G  still  remaining  in  the  sam.o  position 
with  respect  to  C  and  D,  viz.  in  the  right  line  to  C  D  G,  then  the 
point  0  will  now  be  at  a  distance  from  the  point  G,  and  a  part  G  o 
of  the  curve  will  be  described  by  the  fixed  point  G,  also  the  point 
1  will  be  above  the  line  C  D  G  :  now  Fet  the  motion  proceed,  and 
describe  another  eighth  as  at  No.  3  ;  then  the  point  o  being  al- 
ways in  the  line  E  F  pro  luced,  E  F  will  be  at  a  riglit  angle  with 
the  fixed  line  C  D  G,  and  A  B  coincident  with  C  D  G,  and  the  point 
which  was  last  at  G,  will  now  be  at  L  In  like  manner,  when  ano- 
ther  eighth  has  been  performed,  as  at  No.  4,  the  point  o  has  per- 
formed three-eighths  of  a  revolution,  tho  point  1  is  in  a  line  drawn 
trom  the  point  C,  perpendicular  to  the  fixed  line  C  D  G,  and  the 
point  2,  which  was  at  G,  in  No.  3,  is  situated  between  1  ard  G. 


TURNING. 


la  this  manner,  by  continuing  the  motion,  the  whole  curve  will  be 
generated.  No.  5  shows  the  curve,  when  half  a  revolution  has 
been  described,  No.  6,  five-eighths;  No.  7,  six-eighths,  or  three 
quarters  ;  and  No.  8,  seven-eighths. 

Here  it  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  angles  performed  by 
-he  revolution  of  the  machine,  are  very  different  from  the  corres- 
ponding angles,  formed  by  lines  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  el- 
lipse, to  the  describing  point,  and  to  the  extremity  of  the  curve  ul 
its  commencement. 

From  what  has  beon  said,  it  is  eisy  to  conceive  that  the  opera- 
tion  of  elliptic  turning  is  nothing  more  than  that  of  the  ellipse- 
graph  or  common  trammel,  with  this  difference,  that  in  the  opera, 
tion  of  turning,  the  ellipse  is  described  by  moving  the  plane,  and 
keeping  the  point  steady,  but  in  forming  the  curve  by  the  ellipse- 
graph,  the  plane  of  description  is  kept  steady  while  the  point  is  in 
motion.  The  transverse  A  B  E  F  is  the  same  as  the  grooves  in 
the  trammel  cross,  and  the  line  C  D  G  the  trammel  rod  :  here  the 
cross  and  plane  of  description  move  round  together,  but  fixed  to 
each  other,  and  the  trammel  rod  C  D  G  is  held  still  or  immoveably 
confined  :  in  the  trammel,  the  board  and  cross  are  fixed  together, 
and  held  while  the  trammel  rod  C  D  G  moves  with  the  points  C 
and  D  in  the  grooves. 

To  set  this  machine  therefore,  it  is  only  to  make  C  D  equal  to 
the  difference  of  the  axis. 


304  TURNING. 

PLATE  XXXVm. 

Shows  the  relation  between  the  foregoing  diagrams  and  the 
chuck.  Let  K  L  M  N  be  the  face  of  a  board  representing  the 
plane,  which  is  fixed  to  the  axis  of  the  machine.  And  let  O  P 
Q  R  be  another  board  made  to  slide  in  the  board  K  L  M  N,  each 
two  points  O  and  K,  L  and  P,  M  and  Q,  N  and  R,  coinciding  at 
this  moment :  K  L  M  N  will  therefore  represent  a  wide  groove 
in  the  board  ;  as  this  groove  may  be  of  any  width,  we  may  con- 
ceive the  breadth  to  be  very  small  or  nothing,  and  may  therefore 
be  represented  by  a  groove  or  by  the  line  A  B  parallel  to  K  N 
and  L  M,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  distance  between  them.  In. 
stead  of  supposing  the  point  D  always  moving  to  and  fro  in  the  line 
E  F,  we  may  suppose  a  circle,  or  the  end  of  a  large  cylindric 
pin  moving  in  a  very  wide  groove  T  U  V  W  across  the  slider 
O  P  Q  R.  Now  therefore,  all  the  differences  between  these  dia- 
grams  and  those  in  the  former  plate,  are  only  wide  grooves  in 
place  of  hnes  passing  longitudinally  through  the  middle :  for  the 
line  A  B  is  always  conceived  to  move  reciprocally  from  the  one 
side  to  the  other  of  the  board  K  L  M  N :  now  it  is  the  same  thing 
whether  one  straight  line  slide  longitudinally  upon  another  fixed 
line,  or  whether  a  bar  of  any  breadth  move  in  a  groove  of  the 
same  breadth,  or  whether  a  straight  line  in  reciprocal  motion 
always  pass  through  two  fixed  points. 

No.  1  shows  the  chuck,  as  in  the  first  diagram  of  the  last  plate  : 
No.  2  as  No.  2,  No.  3  as  No.  3,  and  No.  4  as  No.  4  of  the  said 
plate.  Any  farther  explanation  is  conceived  as  unnecessary.  It 
now  remains  to  explain  how  the  chuck  is  connected  with  the  ma- 
thine,  and  how  the  parts  are  connected  with  each  other. 

The  end  of  the  spindle  of  the  mandrel  passes  through  a  stout 
upright,  and  projects  over  it  with  a  convex  or  male  screw,  to 
which  is  fixed  the  board  K  L  M  N  with  the  faces  at  right  angle3 
to  the  axis :  a  circular  ring  or  end  of  a  very  large  pin  is  attached 
to  the  said  side  of  the  upright,  so  that  the  ring  or  pin  may  be 


TURNING. 


.305 


fixed  at  any  required  distance  from  the  axis  of  the  spindle,  and 
that  its  axis  and  the  axis  of  the  mandrel  may  always  be  in  the 
same  horizontal  line  or  plane. 

The  wide  groove  K  L  M  N  is  made  on  the  inside  of  the  board 
next  to  the  face  of  the  upright,  and  equal  in  brendth  to  the  diame- 
ter of  the  cylindric  pin,  and  the  slider  may  eilher  move  in  a 
groove  upon  one  side  or  the  other,  or  move  in  mortise  J,  but  in 
whatever  mode  the  reciprocal  motion  of  the  slider  is  performed, 
the  groove  in  the  slider  must  always  be  made  from  the  inside,  so 
that  the  board  which  is  fixed  to  the  axis  must  be  cut  away  for  that 
purpose,  in  order  that  it  may  fit  upon  the  ring  or  pin,  and  since 
the  work  to  be  turned  is  fixed  upon  the  outside  of  the  slider,  the 
slider  must  be  flush  both  outside  and  inside,  or  the  slider  may 
project  on  the  outside. 

It  has  been  mentioned,  that  it  is  of  no  consequence  what  the 
boundary  line  of  the  board  is,  neither  does  it  signify  what  the  com- 
bination of  the  parts  are  that  form  the  chuck,  so  that  the  same 
principle  of  motion  is  performed.  The  parts  exhibited  in  this 
plate,  show  the  most  simple  form  of  the  principle,  and  therefore 
the  diagrams  are  better  calculated  to  aflbrd  instruction.  In  some 
chucks,  the  principle  is  almost  concealed  by  a  complication  of 
parts,  which,  though  not  necessary  in  forming  the  motion,  are 
essential  in  the  practice  :  for  this  reason,  by  continual  working,  if 
the  parts  were  only  of  the  most  simple  forms,  when  the  grooves 
and  pins  wear,  the  truth  of  the  motion  would  be  destroyed  without 
any  remedy  to  rectify  it.  In  the  best  constructed  chucks,  the 
board  which  is  screwed  upon  the  end  of  the  mandrel  is  a  frame, 
which  is  variously  constructed  by  different  people,  but  the  parts  of 
it  which  form  the  sides  of  the  grooves,  may  be  brought  nearer 
together  by  means  of  screws,  and  thus  the  sliders  and  the  cylin. 
dric  ring  or  pin  may  move  exactly  in  the  grooves. 

The  drawing  of  the  chuck,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  con 

nected  with  the  machine,  is  exhibited  in  Plate  V.  to  the  explana. 

(ion  of  which  we  must  refer  our  reader  for  further  information  ; 

the  geometrical  principle,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  combined 
Nos.  19  &  20.     2  p 


306 


TURNING. 


with,  and  their  relation  to  the  parts  in  practice,  being  all  that  is 
intended  to  be  explained  in  this  place ;  and  indeed  this  is  almost 
the  whole  that  can  be  done.  The  practice  can  never  be  obtained 
from  any  written  description,  but  only  from  the  actual  exercise  of 
the  art  itself,  so  that  any  farther  attempt,  besides  the  uses  of  the 
tools,  which  we  have  already  given,  would  be  needless  ;  one  thing 
only  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  turning  several  ellipses,  the  cir- 
cumferences will  be  nearly  parallel,  as  the  difference  in  their 
several  axes  is  the  same. 


PLATE  XXXIX. 

Fig.  1  is  a  view  of  the  end  of  the  machine;  the  principal  parts 
shown  in  this  view  ar9 

A  the  pulley  of  the  mandrel. 

B  and  C  sides  of  the  frame  supporting  the  pulley. 

D  frame  for  the  rest  to  slide  in. 

E  and  F  legs  supporting  the  frame  D. 

G  and  H  continuation  of  B  and  C  below  the  frame  of  the  rest 

I  nut  and  screw  under  the  frame  of  the  rest. 

K  the  elliptic  chuck'with  two  grooves,  through  which  the  knobb 
of  the  slider  pass,  and  are  connected  on  the  outside  by  a  strong 
bar  of  iron,  which  is  screwed  ypon  their  ends.  This  also  show* 
the  screw  for  fastening  the  board  to  which  the  work  is  fixed 
This  frame  is  strongly  braced  to  the  roof,  in  order  to  keep  i* 
steady. 

P  the  rest. 

Q  the  piece  by  which  the  rest  is  fastened. 

Fig.  2  a  view  of  the  inside  of  the  chuck,  containing  the  parta 
N  and  O  :  this  side  of  the  chuck  being  placed  against  the  side  C 
of  the  frame,  Fig.  1. 

N  the  board  containing  the  slider  O,  showing  the  end  of  the 


/  i '  S.3a>-narA.  Setilp. 


TURNING. 


307 


screw  which  is  fixed  in  the  mandrel ;  the  board  N  revolves  round 
a  centre,  while  the  slider  O  not  only  moves  round,  but  has  a 
longitudinal  motion  to  and  fro  m  the  part  N. 

Fi'v.  3  a  view  of  the  outside  of  the  mandrel  frame,  showing  the 
parts  L  and  M 

L  a  part  of  the  side  C  of  the  mandrel  frame,  showing  the  ring 
M  which  is  fastened  to  it  and  which  causes  the  reciprocal  motion 
of  the  shder  O  in  Fig  2 


PLATE  XL. 

TOOLS. 

Fig.  1  the  gouge  for  roughing  and  traversing  the  work. 
Fig.  2  the  chisel  used  in  smoothing  cylindric,  conic,  and  convex 
surfaces  after  the  gouge. 
Fig.  3  right-side  tool. 
Fig.  4  round  tool. 
Fig.  5  point. 
Fig.  6  drill. 

Fig.  7  inside  tool  for  angular  work,  all  the  sides  being  made  to 
cut  occasionally  as  well  as  the  upper  side  of  the  hooked  part. 
Fig.  8  inside  tool  for  concave  curved  work. 
Fig.  9  inside  .ool  for  turning  a  solid  sphere  within  a  hollow  one. 
Fig.  10  screw  tool  for  the  convex  or  male  part. 
Fig.  1 1  screw  tool  for  trie  concave  or  female  part. 
Fig.  12  flat  tool. 
Fig.  13  turning  graver. 
Fig.  14  parting  tool. 

For  the  particular  properties  and  uses  of  these  tools,  see  articles 
where  they  are  particularly  described. 


308 


TURNING. 


§  26.   To  turn  a  Hollow  Sphere, 

First  turn  the  convex  surface,  on  which  draw  two  great  circles 
at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  then  the  hne  joining  the  intersection 
of  these  circles,  is  an  axis  of  the  sphere,  which  will  divide  each 
circle  into  two  equal  parts  or  into  half  circles  :  divide  each  semi- 
circle  into  two  equal  parts,  and  each  circle  will  be  divided  into 
quadrants.  Upon  each  of  the  intersections  or  poles,  with  a  centre 
bit,  bore  a  cylindric  hole,  with  its  axis  tending  to  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  to  such  a  depth  as  to  leave  the  solid  space  between 
the  two  bores  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  cylindrical  bores,  or 
something  less,  with  the  same  centre  bit  upon  the  division  of  eacli 
semicircle  ;  bore  holes  tending  to  the  centre  as  at  first,  and  of  the 
same  depth :  there  will  be  now  six  holes,  then  if  the  axis  of  any 
two  be  fixed  in  a  straight  line  with  that  of  the  mandrel,  with  the 
convex  surface  of  the  sphere  in  a  hollow  chuck,  then  the  interior 
surface  may  be  turned  out  to  a  certain  extent,  and  formed  by 
means  of  the  instrument  shown  in  Plate  XL.  Fig.  8 :  take  the 
sphere  out  of  the  chuck,  and  place  the  hollow  part  thus  turned  in 
the  chuck,  fixing  it  fast  therein  with  the  axis  in  the  same  straight 
line  with  that  of  the  mandrel,  then  turn  the  opposite  hole  in  like 
manner.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with  each  two  remaining  pairs 
of  opposite  holes:  in  turning,  the  hollows  must  be  so  large  as  to 
penetrate  each  other,  and  leave  only  so  much  of  the  solid  to  con- 
nect the  sphere  with  the  core,  as  is  sufficient  to  support  the  latter . 
then  each  of  the  eight  connecting  parts  must  be  sawn  through 
close  to  the  core,  and  as  the  core  is  less  than  either  of  the  holes, 
it  may  be  taken  out,  and  the  connecting  pieces  may  be  sawn  off 
with  a  bent  saw  close  to  the  concave  surface,  and  thus  you  will 
have  the  hollow  sphere  required. 


TURiNlNG. 


309 


§  27.   To  turn  one  Sphere  within  another. 

Find  the  centres  of  the  cyluidrical  holes  as  before,  then  bore 
each  of  the  holes  to  an  equal  depth,  so  that  its  axis  may  tend  to 
the  centre  of  the  sphere,  and  that  the  thickness  between  each  pair 
of  opposite  holes  may  be  equal  to,  or  something  more  than  the 
diameter  of  the  required  interior  sphere  ;  then  fixing  the  axis  of 
each  hole  in  the  axis  of  the  mandrel,  with  the  tool  represented  in 
Plate  XL.  Fig.  8.  turn  a  part  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  outer 
sphere,  and  a  part  of  the  convex  surface  of  the  interior  sphere, 
and  thus  leave  eight  connecting  parts,  which  are  each  to  be  cut 
with  a  bent  saw,  close  to  the  convex  surface  of  the  interior  sphere, 
and  to  the  concave  surface  of  the  exterior  sphere. 

If  the  cylindrical  holes  are  perforated  or  bored  quite  through, 
a  series  of  spheres  may  be  turned  within  each  other  by  the  same 
means,  but  the  diameter  of  the  least  must  be  greater  than  that  at 
the  bore  ;  it  would  be  best  to  begin  the  operation  with  the  most 
interior  sphere,  and  after  this  the  next,  and  thus  in  succession  till 
the  one  next  the  exterior  one  be  loosened.  In  performing  the 
cylindrical  excavations,  the  diameter  of  each  hole  may  be  con- 
tinually less,  and  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of  each  of  the  in- 
ternal spheres. 

In  the  same  manner  may  a  cp.be  be  turned  within  a  sphere, 
instead  of  turning  the  surface  of  the  interior  solid  spherical,  it  is 
only  turning  it  flat  by  means  of  an  inside  tool,  which  has  its  cutting 
edge  straight,  and  at  a  right  angle  with  it. 


§  28.  Conclusion. 

Many  kinds  of  turning  may  be  performed  by  making  the  axis  of 
the  work  to  be  turned  to  slide  progressively,  or  with  a  reciprocal 
motion  through  two  collars,  as  given  points  according  to  a  certain 
law,  while  the  body  continues  to  revolve  uniformly.    If  the  axis 


310 


TURNING. 


proceed  with  a  uniform  motion,  and  a  tool  be  pressed  to  the  sur- 
face, the  tool  will  cut  a  spiral  line  on  the  said  surface. 

If  a  single  crank  be  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  mandrel,  and  the 
end  of  the  crank  made  to  touch  an  inclined  plane  while  the  body 
is  in  motion,  the  point  of  a  sharp  tool  being  pressed  upon  the  sur- 
face, and  kept  stationary  by  means  of  the  rest,  a  line  will  be  cut 
or  described  on  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  this  line  will  be  the 
circumference  or  perimeter  of  an  ellipse,  which  will  have  the  pro- 
portion of  its  axes  in  the  ratio  of  radius  to  the  sine  of  the  plane's 
inclination.  If  the  surface  of  the  body  to  be  turned  be  straight, 
and  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  be  always  held  equi-distant  from 
the  axis,  the  body  itself  will  be  turned  into  a  cylinder,  and  all  its 
sections  perpendicular  to  the  axis  will  consequently  be  circles. 

If  the  surface  of  the  body  be  turned  into  mouldings,  the  work 
is  denominated  swash  worJc,  which  was  much  in  request  in  former 
times,  for  bodies  standing  upon  the  rake,  or  upon  an  inclined  plane, 
as  in  the  balusters  of  scaircases,  but  is  now  entirely  laid  aside. 

An  indefinite  variety  of  subjects  or  figures  may  be  obtained  by 
turning,  by  different  regulations  of  the  mandrel,  by  making  the 
crank  slide  upon  various  surfaces,  or  by  other  methods  of  regu- 
lating the  axis  in  a  direction  of  its  length. 


INDEX 


AND 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

USED  IN 

TURNING. 

N.  B.  This  Mark  §  refers  to  the  preceding  Sections,  according  to 
the  Number, 


A. 

Axis,  an  imaginary  line  passing  longitudinally  through  the  middle 
of  the  body  to  be  turned,  from  one  point  to  the  other  of  the 
two  cones,  by  which  the  work  is  suspended,  or  between  the  back 
centre  and  the  centre  of  the  collar  of  the  puppet,  which  sup- 
ports the  end  of  the  mandrel  at  the  chuck. 

B. 

Back  Boakd,  that  part  of  the  lathe  which  is  sustained  by  the  four 
legs,  and  which  sustains  the  pillars  that  support  the  puppet  bar. 
The  back  board  is  only  used  in  the  best  constructed  lathes.  In 
the  common  lathes,  the  shears  or  bed  are  in  place  of  the  back 
board,  §  5. 

Back  Centre.    See  Centres,  and  §  5 

Band,  §  5.    See  also  Cat-gut. 

Bearer,  that  part  of  the  lathe  which  supports  the  puppets.  ^  r>. 
Bed  of  the  Lathe,  the  same  as  bearer,  which  see. 


3.2 


TURNING. 


Boring  Collar  is  the  machine  having  a  plate  with  conical  holes 
of  different  diameters;  the  plate  is  moveable  upon  a  centre, 
which  is  equidistant  from  the  centres  or  axes  of  the  conic  holes; 
the  axes  are  placed  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  The  use 
of  the  boring  collar  is  to  support  the  end  of  a  long  body  that  is 
to  be  turned  hollow,  and  which  would  otherwise  be  too  long  to 
be  supported  by  a  chuck.    See  Plate  XXXV.  Fig.  2. 

C. 

Callipers,  compasses  with  each  of  the  legs  bent  into  the  form  of 
a  curve,  so  that  when  shut,  the  points  are  united,  and  the  curves 
being  equal  and  opposite,  enclose  a  space.  The  use  of  the  cal- 
lipers is  to  try  the  work  in  the  act  of  turning,  in  order  to  a^cer- 
tain  the  diameter  or  diameters  of  the  various  parts.  As  the 
points  stand  nearer  together  at  the  greatest  required  diameter 
than  the  parts  of  the  legs  above,  the  callipers  are  well-adapted 
to  the  use  intended, 

Cat-Gut,  the  string  which  connects  the  fly  and  the  mandrel,  §  5. 

Centres,  are  the  two  cones  with  their  axis  horizontally  posited  for 
sustaining  the  body  while  it  is  turned,  §  5. 

Cheeks,  the  shears  or  bed  of  the  lathe  as  made  with  two  pieces 
for  conducting  the  puppets. 

Chisel,  a  flat  tool,  skewed  i«n  a  small  degree  at  the  end,  and  be. 
veiled  from  each  side,  so  as  to  make  the  cutting  edge  in  the 
middle  of  its  thickness,  §  9. 

Chuck,  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  fixed  on  the  end  of  the  mandrel 
for  keeping  fast  the  body  to  be  turned,  §  6. 

Circular  Turning,  §  2. 

Collar,  a  ring  inserted  in  the  puppet  for  holding  the  end  of  the 
mandrel  next  the  chuck,  in  order  to  make  the  spindle  run  freely 
and  exactly,  §  5. 

Collar  Plate.    See  Boring  Collar, 

Connecting  Rod.    See  Crank  Hook. 

Conical  Points,  the  cones  fixed  in  the  pillars  for  supporting  the 


\ 


TURNING.  313 

body  to  be  turned ;  that  on  the  right  hand  is  called  the  fore  cen- 
tre, and  that  on  the  left  hand,  the  back  centre,  §  5. 

Crank  Hook,  sometimes  called  also  the  connecting  rod,  as  it  con 
nects  the  treadle  and  the  fly,  §  5. 

Crank,  the  part  of  the  axle  of  the  fly,  which  is  bent  into  three 
knees  or  right  angles,  and  three  projecting  parts  ;  one  of  the 
parts  is  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  has  the  upper  part  of  the  crank 
hook  collared  round  it,  §  5. 

D. 

Drill,  §  14. 

E. 

Elliptic  Turning,  §  25. 

F. 

Feet,  the  horizontal  pieces  on  the  floor  which  support  the  legs  cf 

the  lathe,  §  5, 
Flat  Tools,  §  17. 
Fly  Wheel,  §  5. 
Foot  Lathe,  §  5. 

Foot  Wheel,  or  Fly,  the  wheel  or  reservoir  for  preserving  and 
continuing  the  motion  when  the  force  applied  by  the  foot  is  not 
acting,  ^  5. 

Fore  Centre,  that  on  the  right  hand.    See  Centres,  §  5. 

G. 

Gouge,  the  tool  for  roughing  out  the  work,  §  8. 


Inside  Tools,  §  15. 

2q 


I. 


314 


TURNING. 


L. 

Lathe,  the  machine  for  holding  and  giving  motion  to  the  body  to 

be  turned,  when  the  requisite  force  is  appHed. 
Lathes  in  general  use,  §  3. 
Left-Side  Tools,  §  11. 

Legs,  the  uprights  mortised  into  the  feet  for  sustaining  the  upper 
part  of  the  lathe,  §  4,  5- 

M. 

Mandrel,  that  part  of  the  lathe  which  revolves  the  body  when 
turned  in  a  chuck :  the  pole  lathe  has  no  mandrel,  §  5, 

Mandrel  Frame,  the  two  puppets  which  hold  the  mandrel ;  a 
hardened  steel  collar  being  fastened  in  the  fore  puppet,  and  a 
screw  with  a  conical  point  in  the  back  puppet. 

N. 

Nose,  that  part  of  the  spindle  of  the  mandrel  which  projects  over 
the  puppet  to  receive  the  chuck,  §  5. 

O. 

Otal  Chuck,  §  25. 

P. 

Parting  Tools,  §  21. 

Pikes,  now  called  conical  points,  which  see. 

Pillars,  the  uprights  fixed  at  the  ends  of  the  backboard,  for  sup 

porting  the  bed  of  the  lathe  or  puppet  bar,  §  5. 
Pitched,  is  the  placing  of  the  work  truly  upon  the  centres. 
Point  Tool,  §  13. 

Pole,  an  elastic  rod  fixed  to  the  ceiling  of  the  turner's  shop  foi 
re- acting  by  means  of  the  string  upon  the  treadle  agamst  the 


TURNING. 


315 


pressure  of  the  foot ;  the  foot  draws  the  string  downwards,  and 
the  pole  exerts  its  force  in  drawing  it  upwards,  and  consequently 
should  have  no  more  elasticity  than  what  is  sufficient  for  this 
purpose,  as  the  overplus  would  only  tire  the  workman,  §  4. 

Pole  Lathk,  §  4. 

Pulley,  §  5. 

Puppet  Bar.    See  Bearer, 

Puppets,  the  upright  parts  for  supporting  the  mandrel,  the  one  on 
the  right  being  called  the  fore  puppet,  and  that  on  the  left  the 
back  puppet ;  the  screw  is  fixed  on  the  one,  and  the  mandrel 
collar  on  the  other  puppet,  §  5. 

R. 

Rest,  the  part  of  the  lathe  which  sustains  the  tool  while  turning, 

§4,  5. 
Right-side  Tools,  §  10. 

Roughing  out,  is  the  reducing  of  the  substance  by  means  of  the 

gouge,  to  prepare  the  surface  of  the  body  for  smoothmg. 
Round  Tools,  §  12. 

S. 

Screw,  the  conical  points  or  centres  as  made  with  a  screw,  in  or- 
der to  tighten  the  work  ;  the  screw  or  screws  ought  to  be  kept 
so  tight,  that  there  should  be  no  play,  otherwise  the  work  may 
be  in  danger  of  flying  out,  §  5. 

Screw  Tools,  §  16. 

Sheers.    See  Cheeks  or  Bed  of  the  Lathe, 
Slider,  §  25. 
Square  Tools,  §  18. 

String,  that  which  connects  the  treadle  and  the  pole  in  the  pole 
lathe,  and  in  the  foot  lathe  it  passes  round  the  fly-wheel  and  the 
pulley  of  the  mandrel  in  order  to  turn  the  latter. 

Swash  Work,  §  29. 


316 


TURNING. 


T. 

Tools,  §  7. 

Traversing,  is  moving  the  gouge  to  and  fro  in  roughing  out  the 
work. 

Treadle,  the  part  ot  the  lathe  by  which  the  foot  communicates  its 

force,  and  gives  motion  to  all  the  other  moveable  parts,  §  5. 
Triangular  Tools,  §  19. 
Turning  in  General,  §  1, 
Turning  Gravers,  §  20. 

W 

Wabble  is  the  shaking  of  the  work  in  the  act  of  turning,  because 

it  is  not  fixed  truly  upon  the  centres. 
There  are  several  other  terms  which  are  common  to  smithing  and 

turning.    See  the  Index  and  Explanation  of  the  Terms  to  those 

articles. 


THE 

STEAM-ENGINE, 


ITS  USES,  &c. 


Description  of  the  Nature  of  Steam,  of  the  Princi/ple  of  the  Steam- 
Engine,  of  its  various  Modes  of  Construction,  and  of  its  several 
Parts,  sTioioing  Jiow  they  act  upon  each  other. 

So  much  has  been  said  by  a  host  of  able  writers  in  admiration 

of  the  power  and  utility  of  Steam,  that  it  would  be  little  better 

than  a  waste  of  words  to  expatiate  upon  what  is  already  self-evident 

without  the  aid  of  eloquence.    But  it  is  necessary  to  those  who 

desire  fully  to  appreciate  and  understand  the  nature  of  this  elastic 

fluid,  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  laws  by  which  its 

operations  are  governed;  the  laws  appertaining  to  its  generation 

and  condensation;  its  increase  and  decrease  of  elasticity,  resulting 

from  and  depending  upon  an  increase  or  decrease  of  temperature. 

Without  this  indispensable  knowledge,  it  will  be  impossible  to 

comprehend  the  value  of  the  many  ingenious  and  important 

changes,  not  only  in  form,  but  in  principle,  which  the  power  of 

steam  has  undergone,  since  its  first  rude  introduction  as  an  agent 

of  mechanical  force.    The  present  object,  therefore,  is  to  simplify 

and  illustrate  this  part  of  the  subject  as  much  as  possible. 

317 


818 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


The  two  component  elements  of  steam  are  water  and  heat,  or 
caloric.  Steam  has  been  defined  to  he  the  invisible  vapour  of  water 
which  is  given  off  by  it  at  all  known  temperatures  under  certain 
degrees  of  pressure;  a  definition  which,  though  correct,  is  not  in 
accordance  with  the  popular  idea  of  steam.  It  has  also  been 
defined  as  the  offspring  arising  from  the  union  of  the  two  elements, 
fire  and  water;  and  some  conceptiqn  may  be  easily  formed  of  its 
stupendous  properties,  when  it  is  stated  that  its  expansive  force  is 
found  by  experience  to  be  much  greater  than  that  of  gunpowder. 
Vajpour  is  nearly  synonymous  with  steam,  the  latter  term,  how- 
ever, being  usually  limited  to  express  the  vapour  from  water,  and 
the  former  being  more  general  in  its  application.  Aqueous  vapour, 
in  its  perfect  state,  is  transparent  and  colourless,  consequently 
invisible ;  and  it  is  only  when  partially  mingled  with  the  air,  or 
having  touched  substances  cooler  than  itself,  that  it  becomes  vesi- 
cular, and  consequently  visible.  The  moist,  white  vapour,  there- 
fore, composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  vesicles,  or  small  globules, 
is  not,  as  generally  supposed,  perfect  steam,  but  steam  which  has 
been  deprived  of  a  portion  of  caloric. 


Water. 


The  expansive  quality  of  water,  when  subjected  to  the  action 
of  fire,  has  been  variously  estimated.  It  is  said  that  one  cubic 
inch  of  water  will  expand  into  about  a  cubic  foot  of  steam,  occupy- 
ing a  space  1800  times  greater  than  it  does  in  its  original  state  of 
water.  But  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert  made  the  estimate  considerably 
less,  and  after  repeated  experiments,  was  satisfied  that  it  increased 
its  original  bulk  when  converted  into  steam  only  1330  times ; 


THE  STExVM-ENGINE. 


319 


whereas,  by  Dalton's  experiments,  it  was  computed  to  occupy  1711 
times  the  bulk  it  did  in  its  original  state. 

"Water  itself  is  a  compound  substance,  consisting  of  two  gases, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  so  called  from  two  Greek  words,  the  former 
signifying  to  generate  acids,  the  latter  to  generate  water.  It  owes 
its  fluidity  to  the  latent  heat,  or  caloric,  which  it  contains,  and  the 
absence  of  which  is  the  cause  of  its  being  reduced  to  the  state 
of  ice. 

The  weight  of  water  is  of  importance.  One  pint  will  weigh  one 
pound;  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  will,  therefore,  weigh  1000  ounces, 
or  6  J  lbs.  avoirdupois,  being  about  48  lbs.  for  a  cylindrical  foot. 
It  is  816  times  heavier  than  atmospheric  air. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  time  required  to  convert  a  given 
quantity  of  water  into  steam,  is  six  times  greater  than  that  required 
to  raise  it  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  Fluid,  exposed 
in  an  open  vessel  to  the  action  of  fire,  cannot,  however  great  the 
heat  applied,  be  made  to  indicate  a  higher  temperature  than  that 
at  the  boiling  point.  Steam  will  be  evolved  in  greater  or  less 
quantities,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat  applied,  but  the  tem- 
perature will  continue  the  same  as  that  of  the  water;  a  phenomenon 
first  investigated  by  Dr.  Black. 


Heat. 

Heat  is  a  quality,  or  principle,  the  nature  of  which  is  not  known, 
but  which  is  inherent  in  all  substances.  Chemically,  it  is  called 
caloricj  in  order  to  distinguish  heat  itself  as  a  matter,  from  its 
eflfects :  by  this  term  it  is  known  as  the  cause  of  heat,  that  is,  as 
distinct  from  the  glow,  or  warmth,  imparted  by  one  body  hotter 
than  others,  adjoining  to  it,  until  an  equilibrium  is  established,  and 
to  this  equilibrium  it  has  a  constant  tendency.    The  properties  of 


320 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


heat^  if  fully  investigated,  thougli  constituting  a  tiglily  interesting 
subject,  would  occupy  too  great  a  space  for  the  present  work. 
But  it  must  be  stated,  that  the  degree  of  heat  contained  in  specific 
bodies  has  been  calculated  by  various  tables :  that  in  water,  is 
generally  computed  at  60  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  as  unity. 

The  ca'pacily  for  heat  and  the  specific  heat  of  bodies  have  been 
sometimes  confounded;  for  this  reason,  that  as  one  body  absorbs 
more  heat  than  another,  in  order  to  raise  its  temperature  a  certain 
number  of  degrees,  it  is  said  to  have  a  greater  capacity  for  heat. 

The  distinctive  terms  may,  however,  be  better  defined  thus :  that 
capacity  for  heat  should  be  limited  to  the  relation  between  the 
whole  quantity  of  heat  in  bodies  of  the  same  temperature;  and 
specific  heat  to  express  the  quantity  necessary  to  produce  a  certain 
change  of  temperature.  The  increase,  or  abstraction,  of  heat  pro- 
duces a  change  frequently  in  the  state  of  bodies,  as,  for  example, 
subtract  heat  from  water  and  it  becomes  ice;  infuse  heat  into  ice 
and  it  becomes  fluid;  and,  by  raising  the  temperature,  water 
becomes  steam  or  vapour.  Steam  has  a  greater  capacity  for  heat 
than  water,  and  water  greater  than  ice. 

The  heat  or  caloric  existing  in  all  bodies  consists  of  two  por- 
tions, materially  differing  from  each  other.  The  one  is  denominated 
sensible  heat,  or  that  which  is  in  a  free  or  disengaged  state,  and 
which  is  perceptible  to  the  sense ;  the  other,  latent  heat,  or  that 
which  is  fixed  in  any  body,  and  not  evident  to  our  sensations,  or 
to  the  thermometer.  Other  terms  have  been  given  to  this  descrip- 
tion of  caloric,  by  Professor  Pictet,  who  calls  it  caloric  of  fluidity, 
and  caloric  of  vaporization.  Caloric  in  its  latent  state  is  inactive, 
or  dormant;  released  from  this  it  affects  the  sense  of  feeling,  and 
the  thermometer,  as  though  it  had  never  been  latent. 

The  doctrine  of  latent  heat  was  first  discovered  or  illustrated  by 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Black;  and  it  has  been  erroneously  asserted 
that  Watt  was  indebted  to  this  discovery  for  the  improvements 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


321 


which  he  made  in  the  steam-engine;  but  this  assertion  has  been 
abundantly  proved  to  be  without  foundation,  by  a  long  letter 
addressed  by  Watt  himself,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  to  Sir 
David  Brewster,  who  was  then  engaged  in  editing  a  new  edition  of 
the  works  of  Dr.  Robison,  by  wh/m  the  error  was  originally  pro- 
pagated. Mr.  Watt  says,  ^'I  have  always  felt  and  acknowledged 
my  obligations  to  him  (Dr.  Black)  for  the  information  I  had 
received  from  his  conversation,  and  particularly  for  the  knowledge 
of  the  doctrine  of  latent  heat,"  but  he  continues,  "I  never  did,  nor 
could,  consider  my  improvements  as  originating  in  those  communi- 
cations." 

Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  by  eminent  men  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  different  degrees  of  latent  heat  existing 
in  aqueous  vapour,  or  steam;  and  the  following  results  will  show 
the  difficulty  of  arriving  at  the  desired  point. 

Latent  Heat  of  Aqueous  Vapour. 

Fahrenheit. 


Black   800° 

Ure   888° 

Southern   945° 

Watt   950° 

Clement   990° 

Lavoisier  1000° 

Thompson  1016° 

Rumford  102 1^^ 


Dr.  lire's  experiments  were  undertaken  in  1817,  and  published 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for  1818.  The  following 
table  furnished  by  him,  but  the  numbers  of  which  were  afterwards 
corrected  as  under,  by  Mr.  Tredgold,  gives  the  mean  result  for 
water,  and  some  other  fluids. 

Nos.  21  &  22.  2  R 


\ 


322  THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


Liquid. 

Sppcific 
gravity. 

Temperatu 
tl 

Beginning. 

re  of  the  water  in 
le  bapin. 

End.  Difference. 

Boiling 
point. 

Heat  of  con- 
version into 
vapour. 

1-000 

42-5° 

49° 

6-5 

212° 

942° 

0-825 

42 

45 

8 

175 

425-50 

Sulphuric  Ether 

0-7 

42  • 

44 

2 

112 

302-60 

Oil  of  Turpentine 

0-888 

42 

43-5 

1-5 

316 

1460 

Petroleum  

0-75 

42-5 

44 

1-5 

306 

150-0 

Nitric  Acid  .... 

1-494 

42 

45-5 

3-5 

165 

517-0 

0-978 

42 

47-5 

5-5 

140 

840-0 

1-007 

42-5 

48-5 

6 

870-0 

Mastic  Power  of  Steam,  Atmospheric  Pressure,  &c. 


When  the  thermometer  of  Fahrenheit  indicates  a  temperature 
of  212°,  the  force  of  steam  exactly  equals  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere ;  but  the  annexed  table,  given  by  Woolfe,  exhibits  the  results 
produced  by  higher  degrees  of  temperature;  although  it  has  been 
since  discovered,  by  experiments,  that  the  figures  contained  in  the 
last  column  are  erroneous;  an  observation,  however,  that  does  not 
apply  to  the  preceding  columns,  which  are  the  material  ones  for 
practical  guidance. 

a  3 


P-  a. 


■"•Is 


"  5^ 

'227i^ 

i 

'  5^ 

6 

d 
'3 

230^ 

6 

7 

*  9 

a 

232f 

n 

7 

8 

235i- 

P  ci 

•A 

8 

9 

o 

01 

237^ 

%l 

9 

.  10 
15 
20 
25 

[uare  inch,  require 
!  equal  to 

239^ 
250i 
259^ 
267 

irenheit  thermom 
es  of  heat,  steam  ( 

10  . 
15 
20 
25 

30 
35 
40 

pounds  per  sq 
a  temperature 

273 
278 
282 

F*<  to 

XJ  ^ 
tu  > 

ft 

80 
85 

-a  01 

Ii 

o  w 


15 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


323 


The  importance  attached  by  scientific  men  to  this  subject,  inas- 
much as  it  was  extremely  desirable  to  obtain  the  most  accurate 
knowledge,  based  on  satisfactory  principles,  of  the  elastic  power  of 
steam  at  higher  temperatures,  influenced  the  French  government 
to  solicit  the  members  of  the  Institute,  at  Paris,  to  engage  in  a  new 
series  of  experiments  relating  to  the  object  in  view.  The  inquiry 
was  undertaken  by  MM.  Arago,  De  Prouy,  Du  Long,  and  Girard, 
who  in  1830  made  their  Keport  to  the  Institute,  by  which  eminent 
body  it  was  presented  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  It  vv^as,  of 
course,  a  document  abounding  in  materials  of  great  value;  but  we 
can  only  advert  to  it  in  general  terms  in  this  work;  and  those  who 
desire,  for  practical  purposes,  to  become  better  acquainted  with  its 
contents,  must  refer  to  the  Keport  itself,  which  may  be  easily  pro- 
cured in  this  country. 

The  elastic  power  of  steam,  when  not  in  contact  with  its  water 
of  generation,  but  is  detached  from  it,  has  an  increase  of  tempera- 
ture which  does  not  increase  its  density,  but  merely  its  elastic  form, 
the  density  remaining  the  same. 


Velocity  of  Steam. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  fixed  rule  of  computation  in  deter- 
mining the  degree  of  velocity  with  which  steam  will  rush  into  a 
vacuum,  or  a  fluid  more  rarified  than  itself:  as  so  much  would 
depend  upon  circumstances,  as  to  the  hindrances  it  might  have  to 
encounter  through  pipes,  or  other  apertures,  in  making  its  escape. 
For  this  reason  (the  little  practical  good  that  could  be  attained  by 
such  investigations)  they  have  not  been  encouraged;  experience 
has  been  found  the  best  guide.  In  general  terms,  it  has  been 
reckoned  that  the  passages  in  low  pressure-engines  should  be  in 
diameter  as  \  to  the  diameter  of  the  piston,  and  consequently  the 


324 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


area  about  ^V;  or  say.  about  an  inch  per  horse  for  the  area  of  the 
passages. 


Condensation  of  Steam. 

Without  the  means  of  condensing  this  subtle  vapour  with  ease 
and  rapidity,  the  steam-engine,  in  comparison  with  what  it  is  now, 
would  be  impracticable  and  powerless  for  any  valuable  purposes. 
Its  inefficiency  for  so  long  a  period  is  mainly  ascribable  to  the  want 
of  this  knowledge.  It  did  not  enter  into  the  minds  of  the  Marquis 
of  Worcester,  Moreland,  or  indeed  any  of  the  early  machinists,  who 
turned  their  attention  to  improvements  on  the  first  rude  models. 

The  process  of  the  condensation  of  steam  is  fortunately  simple, 
and  will  be  readily  comprehended.  When  steam  comes  into  con- 
tact with  a  body  colder  than  itself,  they  have  a  natural  tendency 
to  affinity  with  each  other ;  that  is,  they  both  become  of  an  equal 
temperature,  the  one  imparting  cold  and  the  other  heat  to  its  neigh- 
bour; or,  in  other  words,  the  heat  finds  its  equilibrium.  Thus,  the 
colder  a  body  is,  or  its  temperature  being  the  same,  the  greater  its 
surface,  the  more  rapidly  the  temperature  of  the  hot  body  will  be 
reduced,  and,  in  the  case  of  steam,  the  more  rapid  its  condensation. 
Two  things  should,  therefore,  be  observed  in  a  steam-engine, — 1st. 
That  in  the  process  of  condensation,  the  surface  of  the  body  through 
which  the  condensation  is  to  proceed,  should  be  made  as  great,  and 
its  temperature  as  low,  as  possible.  2d.  The  condensing  body 
should  be  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  for  by  the  possession  of  this 
quality  the  process  of  condensation  is  the  more  rapidly  effected. 
Water  is  the  best  conductor  of  heat  yet  discovered,  and  is  conse- 
quently used  for  the  purpose  of  condensation  in  steam-engines. 
Who  first  discovered  the  effect  of  water  here  mentioned  is  involved 
in  doubt,  Savery  having  claimed  that  distinction,  and  Desaguliers 
having  conferred  the  honour  on  Newcomen. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


325 


Water,  however,  thougli  universally  used  as  the  best  known 
medium  for  the  purpose  of  condensation  of  steam,  is  attended  by 
some  inconveniences  well  understood  by  practical  men.  As  all  the 
water  once  used  for  injection  must  be  removed  from  the  condenser, 
this  cannot  be  done  without  the  water  bringing  with  it  a  portion 
of  atmospheric  air,  which  must  also  be  removed,  an  operation 
requiring  the  assistance  of  an  air-pump,  of  considerable  force,  which 
is  a  reduction  of  so  much  useful  effect.  Among  the  innumerable 
experiments  constantly  being  pursued  by  clever  and  ingenious 
mechanics,  many  have  endeavoured  to  remedy  these  defects,  with 
little,  if  any  success;  that  is,  to  produce  condensation,  without 
using  the  injecting  water.  Patents  have  been  taken  out  for  the 
same  purpose,  but  seem  to  have  shortly  been  abandoned  by  the 
patentees;  and  if  any  new  and  successful  method  had  been  dis- 
covered, it  would  doubtless  soon  come  into  general  adoption.  It 
cannot,  notwithstanding,  be  concealed,  that  many  excellent  inven- 
tions fail  for  want  of  due  notice  and  encouragement,  or  the  want 
of  means  on  the  part  of  the  owners. 


Mechanical  Portions  of  tlie  Steam-Eij^inej  with  their  Relative  Bear- ' 
ings  to  each  other. 

Three  things  should  be  required  in  a  steam-engine;  first,  that  it 
should  occupy  the  smallest  possible  space ;  secondly,  that  it  should 
produce  the  greatest  power  for  its  size ;  and  thirdly,  that  it  should 
consume  the  least  quantity  of  fuel. 

Steam-engines  are  described  under  three  general  names,  as 
denoting  so  many  different  principles  or  modes  of  construction  and 
working:  viz. — 

1st,  The  High  Pressure  Steam-Engine. 

2d,  The  Mean,  or  Low  Pressure  ditto. 


326 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


3d,  The  Expanding  ditto. 

To  wMcli  sliould  be  added^  the  high  pressure  condensing  engine, 
working  expansively,  a  combination  of  these,  long  in  use  in  Corn- 
wall, and  lately  introduced  by  Mr.  Wicksteed  at  the  East  London 
"Water-works,  where  it  is  working  with  great  success. 

Having  already  given  in  our  former  pages  a  brief  historical 
account  of  all  the  different  fire  or  steam-engines,  recorded  to  have 
been  invented,  from  the  earliest  period  of  which  there  is  any  men- 
tion made  of  a  machine  worked  by  steam ;  and  subsequently  having 
explained  the  nature  and  power  of  steam  itself,  the  next  object  is 
to  describe  the  mechanical  parts  of  the  engine,  by  means  of  which 
such  almost  magical  effects  have  been  produced;  and  we  know  not 
that  we  can  do  this  better  than  by  proceeding,  step  by  step,  with 
a  description,  in  chronological  order,  of  the  various  improvements 
made  in  it,  from  its  first  simple  invention  to  the  present  day. 

The  contrivance,  or  apparatus  of  Hero,  invented  about  2000 
years  ago,  indicated  the  first  idea  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge 
of  the  application  of  steam  for  the  purpose  of  producing  motion. 
The  following  wood-cut,  with  the  subjoined  description,  will  convey 
a  sufficient  notion  of  this  crude  conception. 

cy|  A,  represents  a  caldron  in  which  the  steam  is 

— -/--^  -Q  generated  by  means  of  a  fire  kindled  underneath, 
but  concealed;  B,  the  hollow  support  by  which 
the  elastic  vapour  passes  to  the  only  apertures 
through  which  it  can  escape,  marked  CC.  The 
ball,  or  globe,  marked  D,  is  connected  with  the 
liollovf  tube,  or  pipe,  by  a  steam  joint,  but  still 
such  as  to  admit  of  freedom  of  action;  and  the  / 
opposite  side  of  the  globe  with  the  solid  arm,  marked  E,  so  as  to 
allow  of  the  free  rotation  of  the  ball.  As  the  steam  rushes  out  from 
the  apertures  above  described,  and  encounters  the  atmosphere,  the 
reaction  produces  a  rapid  rotation. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  327 

Brancas^s  invention  was  even  yet  more  simple.  It  consisted  of 
a  vessel  representing  the  head  of  a  negro,  filled  with  water.  It 
was  supplied  with  a  small  tube  proceeding  from  the  mouth,  and 
intended  to  give  motion  to  a  wheel  placed  opposite  to  it,  the  elastic 
vapour  issuing  from  which  set  the  wheel  in  a  continual  whirl.  But 
the  invention  will  be  better  understood  by  the  following  cut. 

A,  represents  the  vessel  contain- 
ing the  water;  B,  the  furnace;  C, 
the  tube  through  the  aperture  of 
which  the  steam  issues;  and  E,  the 
wheel  which  the  action  of  the  elastic 
vapour,  coming  in  contact  with  it, 
sets  in  motion. 

The  Marquis  of  Worcester's  improvement  on  the  steam-engine 
is  the  next  entitled  to  notice;  but,  from  the  meagre  particulars  he 
has  left  of  his  invention,  there  is  little  to  be  added  to  the  account 
given  by  himself. 

It  has  been  a  question  whether  the  Marquis  of  Worcester  had 
discovered  the  property  of  steam  to  condense,  or  not.  Different 
opinions  have  been  held  upon  this  subject,  and  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  as  yet  finally  settled,  as  the  writings  of  the  noble  author 
throw  little  or  no  light  upon  it.  Some  persons  have  thought  that 
he  made  the  discovery  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century ; 
but  others  have  maintained,  with  more  probability,  that  he  was 
acquainted  only  with  the  expanding  power  of  steam,  and  not  with 
its  property  of  rapid  condensation,  upon  which  so  much  of  the  value 
of  the  steam-engine  depends.  Nothing,  it  has  been  observed,  can 
be  more  obscure  and  unintelligible  than  the  account  which  this 
mysterious  writer  has  left  of  his  invention;  although  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  obtained  some  extraordinary  results  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  power  of  steam. 

Mr.  Tredgold,  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Steam-Engine^  denies  that 


3£8  THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  , 

the  Marquis  of  Worcester  had  any  knowledge  of  the  contracxing 
power  of  steam,  and  gives  the  plan  of  an  engine  such  as  that  which 
he  supposed  to  be  indicated  by  the  noble  author's  description;  but 
as  this  idea  is  merely  conjectural,  it  is  unnecessary  in  a  work 
intended  for  popular  use  to  enter  farther  upon  the  inquiry.  One 
thing  is  certain,  that  the  Marquis  of  Worcester  succeeded  in  reviv- 
ing attention  to  the  capabilities  of  steam;  he  prevented  the  matter 
from  sinking  into  oblivion;  he  stirred  up  the  minds  of  men  of 
learning  and  genius  to  its  farther  consideration ;  and  ultimately  led 
the  way  to  the  most  gigantic  results. 


NewcomeTt's  Engine. 


Newcomen's  engine  may  be  considered  as  the  foundation  of  all 
the  improvements  since  made  in  the  steam-engine,  and  which 
smoothed  the  path  for  his  successors. 

The  principle  and  parts  of  this  engine  are  simple,  and  may  be 
readily  understood  by  the  following  description,  and  reference  to 
the  engraving. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  329 

A,  represents  tlie  furnace;  B,  a  section  of  the  boiler;  of  tlie 
cylinder  in  wliich  the  piston  D  moveS;  air-tight,  up  and  down 
between  the  points  D  and  d;  E,  the  steam-cock  to  regulate  the 
supply  of  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder.  The  beam  F, 
moves  on  the  centre  or  axis  H.  At  the  end  a  chaia  is  secured 
to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  arch-head,  which  passes  round  it  to 
the  lower  extremity,  where  it  is  fastened  to  the  piston  rod  I,  com- 
pleting the  connection  between  the  cylinder  and  the  beam;  the  other 
end  of  the  beam,  G,  is  in  like  manner  connected  to  the  pump-rod 
J,  working  in  the  pump-barrel,  K.  0  represents  a  small  pump 
working  with  a  packed  piston,  which  supplies  water  to  be  injected 
into  the  cylinder  at  the  cock,  P.  Q,  weights  on  the  pump-rod,  to 
drive  it  down  into  the  pump,  and  to  give  a  preponderance  to  that 
end  of  the  beam.  L,  represents  the  gauge-cocks,  to  determine  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  boiler ;  M,  the  escape-pipe  through  which 
the  injected  water  and  condensed  steam  pass  off  from  the  cylinder. 
N,  is  the  safety-valve,  opening  outwards,  to  regulate  the  pressure 
of  the  steam  in  the  boiler;  it  is  adjusted  by  moving  the  weight 
along  the  lever,  to  or  from  its  axis,  on  the  principle  of  the  common 
steelyard  weighing-machine.  K,,  a  jet  of  water  which  may  be  let 
on  to  the  top  of  the  piston,  to  keep  it  air-tiglit. 

To  set  the  engine  to  work,  the  fire  having  been  lighted,  and  the 
boiler  filled  to  the  proper  level,  it  will  be  necessary  to  close  the 
steam-cock,  E,  until  the  steam  in  the  boiler  has  attained  sufficient 
power  to  raise  the  safety-valve,  then  turn  on  the  steam-cock,  when 
the  steam  will  rush  into  the  cylinder,  but  will  be  immediately  con- 
densed by  the  cold  surfaces  opposed  to  it,  and  which  will  continue 
to  be  the  case  until  the  cylinder  has  acquired  the  same  temperature 
as  the  steam.  The  air,  the  cylinder  contained  before  the  steam 
was  let  in,  and  the  injection  water,  together  with  that  produced  by 
the  condensation  of  the  steam,  will  be  driven  out  through  the  pipe 
M.  The  cylinder  now  being  full  of  steam,  turn  off  the  steam- 
2  s 


330 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


cock,  and  turn  on  the  injection-cock^  the  cold  water  spouting  into 
the  cylinder  will  immediately  condense  the  steam,  and  produce  a 
vacuum,  when  the  piston  will  be  driven  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
der, by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  consequently  the  first 
stroke  of  the  pump  eifected.  The  steam-cock  being  again  turned 
on,  the  steam,  together  with  the  excess  of  weight  on  the  pump-rod, 
will  raise  the  piston  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  by  continuing 
the  process  just  described,  the  engine  will  be  kept  in  action. 

Professor  Brande,  however,  in  his  lectures  at  the  London  Insti- 
tution, introduced  so  simple  and  ingenious  an  instrument  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating  the  operations  of  an  atmospheric  steam- 
engine,  that  a  representation  of  it  will  materially  assist  the  reader 
in  comprehending  the  foregoing  description  of  Newcomen's  engine. 

The  glass  tube  and  ball  is  shown  with  its  piston 
A;  the  rod  being  hollowed,  and  closed  by  a  screw 
B.    If  steam  be  generated  by  the  spirit  lamp  C, 
the  air  will  speedily  be  expelled;  and  after  this  is 
^    effected,  the  screw  B  may  be  closed,  and  a  working 
\     stroke  is  obtained  by  artificial  condensation. 

If  the  reader  has  perused  the  above  description 
attentively,  he  will  be  prepared  to  investigate  the  still  more  exten- 
sive, important,  .and  efficient  improvements  made  in  the  steam- 
engine  by  the  superior  mechanical  genius  of  Watt,  and  which,  with 
a  few  additions,  will  bring  us  down  to  the  present  day. 

Hitherto  our  observations  have  applied  to  atmospheric  steam- 
engines  only;  but  Watt  introduced  an  entirely  new  principle.  It 
has  been  seen  that  in  Newcomen^s  engine,  it  was  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere  acting  upon  the  piston  that  pressed  it  downwards. 
Watt  proposed  to  make  the  steam  itself  depress  the  piston,  instead 
of  by  atmospheric  pressure,  an  object  in  which  he  completely  suc- 
ceeded. 

By  this  method,  the  substitution  of  steam  for  atmospheric  pres- 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  331 

sure,  he  obtained  a  most  important  advantage,  as  he  considerably 
augmented,  or  rather  doubled,  the  power  of  the  engine;  because, 
in  an  atmospheric  steam-engine,  the  force  acting  upon  the  piston 
must  depend  solel}^  upon  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  above  it ; 
but  if  the  elasticity  of  the  steam  be  increased  to  twice  the  amount 
of  the  atmospheric  pressure,  an  engine,  upon  the  latter  principle, 
will  raise  a  column  of  water  of  twice  the  weight  that  one  upon  the 
former  principle  could. 

Watt's  second  great  improvement  was  that  of  employing  a  sepa- 
rate vessel  for  condensing  the  steam,  by  which  he  produced  several 
considerable  advantages,  more  particularly  a  saving  of  nearly  half 
the  fuel;  because,  by  surrounding  the  cylinder  with  a  case,  it  is 
always  preserved  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  or  at  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  steam ;  so  that  it  loses  nothing  in  the  pro- 
cess of  condensation. 

The  character  of  the  steam-engine  was  thus  completely  changed ; 
its  power  vastly  augmented,  and  its  force  more  easily  regulated. 
For  more  than  fifty  years,  Newcomen's  or  the  atmospheric  engine 
maintained  an  undisputed  supremacy,  and  even  long  afterwards  it 
was  preferred  by  many  persons  to  the  more  modern  one;  but  the 
superiority  of  Watt's  engine  rapidly  superseded  the  use  of  all  others. 
Although,  however,  it  is  to  the  practical  genius  of  that  eminent 
man  that  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  principal  improvements  in 
the  steam-engine,  it  is  probable  that  those  advantages  would  have 
been  lost  to  mankind  but  for  the  penetration,  public  spirit,  and 
noble  munificence  of  his  partner,  Mr.  Boulton. 

Baron  Dupin,  in  reference  to  this  topic,  says,  ^'Watt's  engine 
was,  when  invented  by  him,  but  an  ingenious  speculation,  when 
Boulton,  with  as  much  courage  as  foresight,  dedicated  his  whole 
fortune  to  its  success.^'  ^^Men,"  continues  Dupin,  ^^who  devote 
themselves  to  the  improvement  of  industry  will  feel  in  all  their  force 
the  services  that  Boulton  has  rendered  to  the  arts  and  mechanica] 


332  THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

sciences^  hy  freeing  the  genius  of  Watt  from  a  crowd  of  extraneous 
difficulties  which  would  have  consumed  those  days  that  were  far 
better  dedicated  to  the  improvement  of  the  useful  arts/' 

The  above,  however,  were  not  the  only  improvements  made  in 
the  steam-engine  by  Watt,  as  he  also  introduced  the  governor, 
parallel  motion,  &c.,  by  which  it  was  placed  more  completely  under 
control,  and  thus  rendered  the  more  perfect.  But  as  we  shall  give 
a  minute  description  of  the  steam-engine  now  in  general  use,  accom- 
panied by  a  cut,  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  any  further  account  of 
his  inventions  in  this  place. 

The  double  acting  steam-engine  is  that  of  which  we  purpose 
giving  a  full  and  detailed  notice,  because  if  the  principle  and  parts 
of  that  be  thoroughly  comprehended,  there  will  be  little  difficulty 
in  understanding  others.  The  frontispiece  represents  an  engine 
upon  the  most  approved  modern  construction,  and  the  following 
letter-press  description  will  explain  all  its  various  parts  and  bearings. 


The  Boiler. 

The  Boiler  is  undoubtedly  the  most  fundamental  part  of  the 
steam-engine,  not  only  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  functions  it 
has  to  discharge,  but  also  by  reason  of  the  various  apparatus  attached 
to  it,  by  means  of  which  its  temperature  is  regulated,  and  thereby 
the  liability  to  accidents  diminished.  The  most  fatal  accidents 
may,  and  often  do,  result  from  imperfections  in  the  boiler  itself,  or 
from  the  neglect,  or  mismanagement,  of  the  persons  whose  duty  it 
is  to  attend  to  it.  If  more  steam  be  generated,  at  a  given  rate  of 
speed,  than  is  requisite  for  that  speed,  the  boiler  being  overcharged 
will  burst;  unless  some  provision  be  made  to  guard  against  such  a 
consequence.  To  obviate,  as  ftir  as  possible,  any  danger  from  this 
cause,  several  ingenious  appendages  are  attached  to  the  boiler,  the 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  333 

first  of  wliicli  is  the  safetij-valve,  which  allows  the  escape  of  any 
superfluity  of  the  vapour.  But  another  precaution  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  unnecessary  consumption  of  fuel  and  waste  of  power; 
and  this  suggested  the  idea  of  the  self-acting  damper j  which  is  so 
adjusted  to  the  engine,  that  when  the  action  of  the  steam  becomes 
too  great,  the  damper  descends  and  checks  the  heat  of  the  furnace ; 
and,  when  too  small,  the  damper,  by  rising,  increases  the  draught 
and  intensity  of  action.  To  some  engines  are  also  attached  internal 
safety-valves  for  additional  security  against  any  sudden  and  unusual 
condensation  of  steam  in  the  boiler.  Next  to  the  damper  is  the 
self-acting  feed-pqoe,  the  use  of  which  is  also  to  regulate  the  heat 
in  the  boiler,  to  prevent  the  metal  being  burnt  and  destroyed  by 
the  immoderate  action  of  the  fire,  and  also  to  avoid  laying  a  foun- 
dation for  many  serious  disasters.  Gauge-coclcs  form  another  attach- 
ment to  the  boiler :  they  have  "  pipes  descending  into  them  to  such 
depths,  that  one  of  them  opens  just  above  the  proper  surface-level 
of  the  water,  and  the  other  just  below  it,  so  that  when  the  water 
is  in  proper  quantity  and  the  first  of  these  cocks  is  turned,  it  will 
yield  steam,  and  the  other  being  turned,  it  will  yield  water;  but 
if  the  water  is  too  high  in  the  boiler,  both  pipes  will  be  immersed 
in,  and  give  out  water,  and  if  too  low,  they  will  both  give  steam; 
the  engineer,  therefore,  by  this  means,  has  it  always  in  his  power 
to  ascertain  the  state  of  his  boiler,  and  whether  or  not  the  self-act- 
ing damper  is  properly  performing  its  duty.'' 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe  here  that  more  recent  improvements 
have  taken  place  in  steam-engine  boilers;  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  introduction  of  cylindrical  boilers  and  serpentine 
tubes — by  which  four  great  objects  were  obtained, — increased  safety, 
considerable  space,  a  great  saving  of  fuel,  and  an  accession  of  power. 
II.  M.  steamer  EcJio  was  fitted  up  in  this  manner  in  1831,  and  the 
machinery  was  found  to  answer  excellently. 

The  dimensions  of  boilers  is  a  question  that  can  be  interesting 


334 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


to  few  but  practical  readers,  and  moreover  it  could  not  be  adequately 
considered  within  our  prescribed  limits;  for  which  reasons  it  is 
better  altogether  to  omit  the  subject. 


Safety  -  Valves. 

The  object  of  the  safety-valve  is,  by  permitting,  as  occasion  may 
require,  the  escape  of  the  steam,  to  promote  the  safety  of  the  engine 
and  the  security  of  human  life.  It  is  made  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
according  to  the  opinions,  or  experience,  of  the  makers.  It  will  be 
sufficient  here  to  notice  only  one  kind,  namely,  that  which  is  called 
the  steel-yard  safety-valve.  The  construction  is  as  follows : — a  sup- 
port projects  from  the  side  of  a  short  tube,  to  which  a  lever  is 
attached,  carrying  a  weight  at  its  other  end,  and  to  the  lever  is 
fixed  the  valve,  which  opens  when  the  pressure  of  the  steam  from 
within  exceeds  that  to  which  the  weight  is  adjusted,  or  rather  to 
the  part  of  the  lever  to  which  the  weight  is  appended.  But  as  the 
valve  will  sometimes  stick,  the  most  frightful  consequences  may,  in 
that  case,  be  apprehended;  and,  in  fact,  extensive  loss  of  life  has 
been  incurred  from  this  circumstance;  insomuch,  that  a  parlia- 
mentary inquiry  was  some  years  since  instituted  into  the  subject. 
Various  expedients  have  been  tried  to  prevent  the  sticking  of  the 
valve ;  and  it  is  always  best  to  have  a  box  or  cover  over  it  to  pre- 
vent its  derangement  by  the  ignorance  and  meddling  of  strangers. 
The  valves  are  to  the  steam-engine  what  the  lungs  are  to  the 
human  body. 


Pistons. 

The  power  of  the  steam-engine,  in  a  great  measure,  depends 
upon  the  working  qualities  of  the  piston,  which  is  that  part  of  the 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


335 


macliinery  wliicli  is  attached  to  the  rod  called  the  piston-rod,  and 
which  ascends  and  descends  in  the  cylinder  by  the  action  of  the 
steam.  As  it  is  necessary  that  the  cylinder  should  be  kept  steam- 
tight,  it  is  the  province  of  the  piston  to  perform  that  operation;  at 
the  same  time,  it  is  important  that  as  little  friction  should  be  pro- 
duced between  the  piston  and  the  side  of  the  cylinder  as  possible. 
In  Newcomen's,  and  other  engines,  this  was  effected  by  means  of 
water  being  kept  floating  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  pistons;  and 
this  was  one  of  Watt's  first  difficulties.  He  at  length  determined, 
after  many  experiments  with  different  kinds  of  packings,  and  dif- 
ferent unguents  for  diminishing  the  friction,  that  hemp,  or  tow, 
lubricated  with  tallow,  best  answered  the  purpose.  Notwithstand- 
ing, however,  the  utmost  pains  taken  with  this  mode  of  packing, 
the  drawback  upon  the  power  of  the  engine,  from  friction,  is  con- 
siderable, being  generally  estimated  at  288  pounds  per  foot  on  the 
contact  surface  of  the  piston.  Much  ingenuity  has,  therefore,  been 
exercised  in  order  to  obviate  so  serious  a  deficiency. 


Hemp-packed  Pistons. 

The  hemp,  or  common  packed  piston,  was  for  many  years  uni- 
versally employed  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  or  as  the  best  that  had 
been  devised;  it  is  even  still,  in  some  instances  preferred;  and 
occasionally  it  becomes  quite  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  it,  upon 
temporary  emergencies,  particularly  in  steam-vessels  at  sea,  even 
where  metallic  pistons  are  used,  in  case  of  the  datter  getting  out  of 
repair,  or  from  being  damaged.  But  the  packing  of  the  piston 
always  causes  an  inconvenient  delay  of  several  hours.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  mode  in  which  it  is  done.  The  bottom  of  the  piston  is 
first  fitted  as  accurately  as  possible  to  the  cylinder,  leaving  it,  how- 
ever, freedom  enough  to  rise  and  fall  through  the  whole  length ; 


836 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


the  part  of  the  cylinder  immediately  above  this  is  from  one  to  two 
inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  engine,  less  all  round  than  the 
cylinder,  to  leave  a  circular  or  annular  space,  into  which  unspun 
long  hemp,  or  soft  prepared  rope,  is  wound  as  evenly  and  compactly 
as  possible,  to  form  the  packing.  A  plate  or  cover  is  then  put  ovei 
the  top,  having  a  projecting  ring  to  fit  over  the  lower  part,  to  com- 
plete the  upper  side  of  the  space  for  packing,  being  compressed 
upon  it  by  means  of  several  screws.  Both  the  upper  and  lower 
part  of  the  space  round  the  piston  to  contain  the  packing  is  a  little 
curved,  that  the  pressure  produced  by  the  screws  on  the  packing 
may  force  it  against  the  inside  surface  of  the  cylinder,  into  as  close 
contact  as  possible.  The  operation  of  re-packing,  however,  if  it 
were  attended  with  no  other  disadvantage,  is  a  sufficient  objection 
to  it  as  an  uniform  or  general  practice. 


Metallic  Expanding  Piston. 

The  first  projector  of  a  metallic  piston  was  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cart- 
wright,  about  fifty  or  sixty  years  since;  but  he  was  unable  to  bring 
it  into  successful  use,  and  the  old  mode  of  packing  continued  to 
prevail.  Various  attempts  were  made  to  improve  Cartwright's 
piston,  but  most  of  them  were  failures,  or  at  least  not  entitled  to 
much  encouragement,  until  Mr.  John  Barton,  about  1815,  took 
out  a  patent  for  a  metallic  expanding  piston,  which  has  since  been 
introduced  into  the  government  service,  and  very  extensively 
adopted  in  other  public  and  private  establishments.  Mr.  Barton 
has  made  several  improvements  in  his  piston  since  it  was  first  pro- 
jected, by  which  its  utility  has  been  greatly  increased.  Without 
encumbering  our  pages  by  describing  it  in  its  original  form,  we 
shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  description  of  it  in  its  present  more 
perfect  state* 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


337 


Plflji.,<5ss=ssg3^  Barton's  metallic  piston  is  represented  by  the 

annexed  plan  and  section.  It  is  composed  of  a 
solid  cylindrical  cast-iron  body  A,  having  a 
conical  hole  B,  to  receive  the  enlarged  end  of 
the  piston  rod;  to  which  it  is  secured  by  a  bolt. 
A  space  or  groove  is  formed  round  the  body  of 
the  piston,  to  receive  metallic  segments  marked 
E,  which  are  spread  asunder  by  four  triangular 
wedges  Gr,  of  the  same  metal  as  the  segments,  acted  on  by  eight 
spiral  springs  of  tempered  steel.  These  springs  are  inserted  in 
cylindrical  cavities  at  both  ends,  in  order  to  render  them  secure 
from  bending,  and  yet  allow  them  to  play  freely.  With  the  same 
view,  each  spring  has  a  piece  of  steel  within  it,  a  little  shorter  than 
the  spring.  In  pistons  made  for  high-pressure  steam,  there  are 
three  grooves  formed  round  the  exterior  part  of  the  segments;  the 
middle  designed  to  hold  oil  or  grease  to  lubricate  the  rubbing  sur- 
faces. The  upper  and  lower  grooves  are  for  hoops  of  tempered 
steel,  having  a  forked  loose  joint  in  each;  these  hoops  are  nicely 
fitted  to  the  grooves,  and  when  the  piston  is  in  its  place  their  jointed 
ends  meet. 


Barton^ s  Lubricators. 

This  is  a  very  simple  but  exceedingly  useful  invention.  By  the 
old  mode  of  oiling  the  bearings  of  steam-engines,  much  oil  was 
unnecessarily  consumed  and  spilt  about,  causing  a  filthy  appear- 
ance. To  rectify  this,  Mr.  Barton  invented  his  patent  Lubricator. 
It  consists  of  a  vessel  either  cylindrical,  urn-shaped,  quadrangular, 
or  in  any  other  form  required.  A  tube  passes  through  the  body 
of  the  vessel,  elongated  three  or  four  inches,  or  less,  according  to 

the  size,  below  the  bottom,  and  by  which  it  is  fixed  to  the  bearing. 
Nos.  23  &  24.    2  T 


338 


THE  STEAM-ENaiNE. 


Through  this  tube  two  or  three  threads  of  worsted  are  passed,  one 
end  overhanging  the  top  of  the  tube  in  the  vessel,  and  the  other 
hanging  out  from  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  The  vessel  being  filled 
with  oil,  the  oil  is  absorbed  by  the  worsted,  and  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion conveyed  to  the  bearing  to  which  the  lubricator  is  attached. 
The  supply  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  screw  and  valve  at  the  top; 
the  screw  being  made  tight,  the  valve  presses  upon  the  top  of  the 
tube  in  the  vessel  and  stops  the  supply;  but  by  relaxing  the  pres- 
sure of  the  screw,  the  oil  continues  to  flow  in  any  proportion  that 
may  be  desired.  Thus  the  Lubricators  render  a  constant  and  well- 
regulated  supply  of  oil  to  all  those  parts  of  the  engine  where  it  is 
required,  save  the  engine-men  much  personal  risk,  and  a  great  deal 
of  labour,  which  is  especially  the  case  when  the  engine  is  working, 
at  great  speed. 


Cylinder  and  Condenser  Gauge' 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  state  of  the  engine  at  any  time,  two 
barometer  gauges  are  employed,  one  showing  the  elasticity  of  the 
steam  in  the  boiler,  and  the  other,  the  rarefaction  of  the  vapour  in 
the  condenser.  The  nature  of  these  instruments  is  too  well  known 
to  need  any  further  description  of  their  uses. 


Parallel  Motion. 

This  is  a  beautiful  contrivance,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the 
celebrated  Watt.  The  object  is  to  connect  the  end  of  the  beam  to 
the  piston  rod  in  such  a  manner,  that  whilst  the  end  of  the  beam 
rises  and  falls  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  piston  shall  move  up  and 
down  in  an  exact  straight  line.    It  is  evident,  if  the  end  of  the 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


339 


piston  rod  was  to  be  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  beam  by  a  pivot,  that 
it.  must  follow  the  annular  course  traversed  by  the  beam  head, 
which  would  rock  it  to  and  fro  till  it  either  broke  the  rod  or 
destroyed  the  packing  in  the  box  of  the  cylinder  lid  through  which 
it  passes. 

With  the  more  varied  application  of  steam,  it  became  also  neces- 
sary that  the  communication  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  piston 
should  cither  push  up  the  beam,  pull  it  down,  or  both  alternately, 
as  in  the  double-acting  engine. 

The  apparatus  he  adopted  for  effecting  these  purposes  is  repre- 
sented on  the  arm  A  of  the  beam  in  the  frontispiece.  The  beam 
moving  on  its  axis  C,  every  part  of  the  arm  moves  in  the  arc  of  a 
circle  of  which  C  is  the  centre.  Let  B  be  the  point  which  divides 
the  arm  A  C  into  equal  parts,  A  B,  and  B  C ;  and  let  D  E  be  a 
straight  rod  equal  in  length  to  C  B,  and  playing  on  the  fixed  centre 
D.  The  end  E  of  this  rod  is  connected  by  a  link  E  B  with  the 
point  B.  If  the  beam  be  supposed  to  move  up  and  down  on  its 
axis  C,  the  point  B  will  move  in  a  circular  arc,  of  which  C  is  the 
centre,  and  at  the  same  time  the  point  E  will  move  in  an  equal  arc, 
of  which  D  will  be  the  centre ;  accordingly  the  middle  point  F  will 
move  up  and  down  in  a  straight  line. 

Then  if  a  link  A  Gr,  equal  to  B  E,  be  connected  at  A  to  the  end 
of  the  beam  by  a  pivot  at  B,  and  its  other  end  attached  to  the  rod 
Gr  E,  and  the  piston  rod  T,  by  the  same  pivot  Gr,  the  point  Gr  with 
the  piston  rod  will  move  up  and  down  in  a  straight  line,  as  was 
shown  of  the  point  F,  to  which  it  is  similar,  although  it  travels  over 
twice  the  space.  Thus,  we  have  two  points  moving  in  straight  lines 
F  Gr;  to  F  is  attached  the  air  pump  rod,  and  to  Gr  the  piston  rod. 


The  Governor 

Is  a  throttle  valve  placed  in  the  tube  which  conveys  the  steam 
from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder,  an  ingenious  contrivance  of  Watt 


340 


THE  STEAM-ENGIINE. 


to  regulate  the  supply  of  steam.  For  a  time  it  was  left  to  the 
engine-man  to  adjust,  but  fie  afterwards  arranged  a  plan  by  wliich 
the  engine  was  made  to  regulate  it,  and  with  more  certainty  and 
accuracy  than  could  be  attained  by  the  old  system.  He  effected 
this  by  communicating  the  motion  of  the  fly-wheel  by  the  strap  K 
to  a  vertical  shaft,  to  which  two  balls  were  suspended  by  rods, 
marked  H  in  the  frontispiece;  as  the  shaft  turned  round,  carrying 
the  balls  with  it,  they  by  the  centrifugal  force  spread  out  from 
their  centre,  more  and  more,  as  the  speed  increased.  Connected 
with  the  balls  was  a  lever,  which  gradually  closed  the  valve  h  as 
the  balls  rose,  shutting  off  part  of  the  steam,  and  consequently 
diminishing  the  power.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  speed  of  the  fly 
wheel  was  diminished,  the  balls  fell  toward  the  axis,  and  the  oppo- 
site effect  ensuing,  the  supply  of  steam  was  increased  and  the  speed 
restored. 


The  Double-acting  Engine. 

"When  Watt  had,  by  his  great  ingenuity  and  perseverance,  im- 
proved upon  the  atmospheric  engine  of  Newcomen,  and  rendered  it 
suitable  for  all  purposes  of  raising  water,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
applying  the  force  of  steam  to  manufactures  generally.  To  accom- 
plish this,  it  became  necessary  that  the  beam  should  be  driven  by 
the  steam  in  its  ascent,  as  well  as  in  its  descent,  and  he  first  pro- 
posed to  effect  it  by  employing  two  cylinders,  one  placed  undei 
each  end  of  the  beam,  to  work  alternately,  so  that  one  piston  would 
be  descending  by  the  full  power  of  the  steam  exactly  when  the 
power  was  suspended  in  the  other,  consequently  a  universal  force 
would  be  exerted  on  the  beam. 

He,  however,  soon  laid  this  aside  for  another  arrangement  still 
more  simple,  with  which  he  produced  the  same  result  with  one 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


341 


cylinder,  by  alternately  admitting  the  steam  above  and  below  the 
piston,  the  steam  at  the  same  time  being  drawn  off  by  the  con- 
denser from  the  other  side.  Thus  the  steam  forces  up  the  piston, 
and  forces  it  down  alternately,  and  is  therefore  called  the  Double- 
acting  Steam-engine,  an  illustration  of  which  will  be  seen  in  the 
frontispiece  of  this  work. 

Having  given  some  account  of  the  principal  portions  of  the 
steam-engine  separately,  we  will  now  endeavour,  by  describing  them 
collectively,  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  relation  and  influence 
they  bear  to  one  another.  The  steam  from  the  boiler  passes  to  the 
cylinder  through  the  pipe  S,  and  the  quantity  admitted  in  a  given 
time  is  regulated  by  the  valve  7j,  called  the  throttle  valve,  which 
is  acted  upon,  or  is  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  governor. 

Attached  to  one  side  of  the  cylinder  are  two  square,  hollow  ves- 
sels or  boxes  marked  U  Y,  having  communication  with  the  cylinder 
by  a  hole  from  the  middle  part  of  each,  called  the  port  holes;  these 
boxes  are  supplied  with  four  valves,  the  upper  one  in  each  being 
the  induction  valve,  for  the  admission  of  steam,  and  the  lower  one 
in  each  the  exhaustion  valve,  by  which  the  steam  passes  off  from 
the  cylinder  to  the  condenser.  These  valves  move  in  pairs,  that  is, 
the  upper  induction  and  the  lower  exhaustion  move  together,  and 
the  upper  exhaustion  and  the  lower  induction  also  at  the  same  time. 
All  these  valves  are  worked  with  one  lever  marked  "W.  Under  the 
cylinder  is  placed  the  condensing  apparatus,  consisting  of  two  cylin- 
ders 0  and  N,  immersed  in  a  cistern  of  cold  water,  the  former  of 
which,  the  condenser  0,  has  a  pipe  called  the  injection-pipe  enter- 
ing into  it,  with  a  head  like  the  rose  of  a  watering-pot,  while  the 
other  end  is  open  to  the  cistern,  thus  establishing  a  communication 
between  the  interior  of  the  condenser  and  the  cold  water  in  which 
it  is  immersed.  This  pipe  is  supplied  with  a  cock  to  regulate  the 
passage  of  the  water  through  it.  The  other  cylinder,  N,  is  called 
the  air-pump,  and  is  furnished  with  a  close-packed  piston,  having 


342 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


a  valve  in  it  opening  upwards,  and  operating  like  the  bucket  of  an 
ordinary  pump.  This  air-pump  piston  has  an  upright  rod,  with 
its  lower  end  secured  to  the  piston,  and  the  upper  end  connected  to 
the  beam  at  the  point  F.  The  bottom  of  these  vessels,  0  and  N, 
are  connected  by  a  passage  having  a  valve  in  it  opening  towards 
the  latter. 

The  principal  cylinder,  marked  Q  in  the  frontispiece,  is  con- 
structed similarly  to  that  employed  for  the  single-acting  engine, 
and  therefore  does  not  require  any  further  description. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  piston  to  be  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder, 
and  the  whole  area  of  the  cylinder  below  the  piston  to  be  filled  with 
steam.  To  set  the  engine  going  we  must  turn  on  the  injection- 
cock,  which  will  throw  a  jet  of  cold  water  into  the  condenser;  then 
by  raising  the  lever  W,  the  lower  exhaustion  valve  will  be  opened, 
and  the  steam  that  occupied  the  cylinder  will  pass  off  to  the  con- 
denser, and  be  immediately  reduced  to  water,  causing  a  vacuum 
below  the  piston;  at  the  same  time  the  upper  induction  valve  will 
be  opened,  and  the  steam  being  admitted  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  piston,  will  force  it  down  into  the  vacuum,  thereby  producing 
an  effectual  downward  stroke  of  the  beam.  To  produce  an  upward 
stroke,  we  have  only  to  depress  the  lever  W,  when  the  valves  that 
were  open  will  be  closed  and  the  other  pair  opened.  The  steam 
escaping  from  above  the  piston  to  the  condenser,  a  vacuum  is  again 
formed  into  which  the  piston  is  driven  by  the  force  of  the  steam  as 
it  is  admitted  beneath  it  by  the  lower  induction  valve. 

When  the  steam  is  reduced  to  water  in  the  condenser,  a  certain 
quantity  of  air  becomes  disengaged.  This  air,  and  the  water  pro- 
duced by  condensation,  together  with  the  water  that  was  thrown 
in  by  the  injection  pipe,  must  be  removed,  to  perform  which  is  the 
office  of  the  air-pump,  and  is  effected  by  every  upward  stroke  of 
that  end  of  the  beam  to  which  the  pump  rod  is  attached. 

y 

It  should  be  observed  in  the  Double-acting  Engine,  condensa 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  843 

tion  is  constantly  going  on^  therefore  the  injection-pipe  must  always 
be  flowing,  but  requires  to  be  regulated  according  to  the  quantity 
of  steam  supplied  to  the  cylinder  in  a  given  time;  so  that  only  the 
exact  quantity  of  cold  water  necessary  to  reduce  the  steam  to  water 
at  the  temperature  of  212  degrees  may  be  admitted. 

Of  the  hot  water  removed  by  the  air-pump,  a  quantity  is  carried 
back  to  the  boiler  by  the  pipe  L,  sufficient  to  keep  it  properly  sup- 
plied. 

Trusting  the  foregoing  treatise  has  been  sufficiently  clear  and 
comprehensive  to  give  the  reader  a  general  idea  of  the  admirable 
contrivances  by  which  the  elastic  force  of  steam  is  rendered  such  an 
active  and  powerful  agent,  we  will  proceed  to  show  how  the  force 
is  communicated  to  machinery  when  a  rotary  motion  is  required. 

At  the  opposite  end  of  the  beam  to  that  at  which  the  piston-rod 
is  exerting  its  power,  is  attached  a  rod  marked  X,  by  the  pivot  Z. 
The  lower  end  of  this  rod  works  a  crank  or  shaft  on  a  longitudinal 
beam  that  is  capable  of  revolving.  Now  it  is  obvious  that  this  rod 
can  only  exert  power  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  consequently 
can  only  push  and  pull  the  crank ;  but  as  it  is  necessary  that  the 
crank  should  go  round  its  centre,  an  agent  must  be  employed  to 
assist  the  rod  when  its  force  is  least  effective.  This  agent  is  the 
fly-wheel.  The  fly-wheel  is  a  heavy  disc  or  hoop,  balanced  on  its 
centre,  and  so  connected  with  the  machinery,  that  it  turns  rapidly 
with  it,  so  as  to  receive  its  motion  from  the  impelling  power.  The 
momentum  which  it  acquires  during  the  descent  of  the  connecting 
rod,  it  will  retain,  by  virtue  of  its  inertia  during  the  time  that  the 
power  of  the  rod  is  least  effective,  and  will  carry  it  past  the  per- 
pendicular position,  and  bring  it  again  within  the  influence  of  the 
rod.  Thus  the  horizontal  shaft  will  continue  to  revolve,  impelled 
by  a  powerful  and  uniform  force,  and  which  may,  by  the  ingenuity 
of  the  mechanic,  be  varied  and  adjusted  to  any  of  the  numerous 
uses  to  which  the  mighty,  irresistible  power  of  steam  is  applied. 


344  THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

The  High-pressure  Engine. 

The  principle  of  engines  so  called  depends  on  the  power  of  steam 
to  expand  itself  very  considerably  beyond  its  original  bulk,  by  the 
addition  of  a  given  portion  of  caloric,  thus  acquiring  a  considerable 
elastic  force,  which,  in  this  case,  is  employed  to  give  motion  to  a 
piston.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  attendant  on  employing 
the  repellant  force  of  steam,  as  in  this  form  of  the  engine,  consists 
in  an  evident  saving  of  the  water  usually  employed  in  condensation ; 
and  this,  in  locomotives  for  propelling  carriages,  is  an  object  of  con- 
siderable importance.  The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Papin;  but  it 
afterwards  received  great  improvements  from  the  genius  of  Watt. 
But  the  first  persons  who  employed  the  high-pressure  engine  to 
advantage,  were  Messrs.  Trevithick  and  Vivian,  as  they  found  it 
admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  propelling  carriages.  In  this 
case  the  steam,  after  having  performed  its  office,  was  thrown  off 
into  the  air;  and  the  condenser,  together  with  the  necessary  supply 
of  cold  water  which  must  have  accompanied  it,  was  by  this  means 
dispensed  with.  For  the  purpose  of  motion,  the  high-pressure 
engine  certainly  possesses  considerable  advantages,  not  the  least  of 
which  are  cheapness  and  portability. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY. 

PAGE 

Definitions      .                                      -         -  12 

Definitions  of  solids.       •          -          •          -          .  14 

Plate  I. — Definitions     -          ...         •  16 

Plate  II.— Solids          •          -          •          -          -  17 

Plate  III. — Problems  .....  18 
Prob.  1.  From  a  given  point  in  a  given  straight  line  to 

erect  a  perpendicular       ....  ibid 
Prob.  2.  To  let  fall  a  perpendicular  from  a  given  point  to 

a  given  straight  line         ....  ibid, 
Prob.  3.  When  the  point  is  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  line, 

method  first         -  ibid 
Prob.  4.  To  draw  a  perpendicular  from  a  point  at  the  end 

of  the  line           .....  19 

Brob.  5.  To  bisect  a  given  straight  line   -          -          .  ibid, 

Prob.  6.  To  bisect  a  given  angle           .          .          -  ibid 

Prob.  7.  To  make  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle          .  ibid 


346  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Prob.  8.  Through  a  given  point  to  draw  a  line  parallel  to 

a  given  right  line  -  -  20 

Prob.  9.  To  draw  a  line  parallel  to  another  at  a  given 
distance  ...  -         >  . 

Prob.  10.  Three  straight  lines,  of  which  any  two  are 
greater  than  the  third  being  given,  to  describe  a 
triangle,  the  sides  of  which  will  be  respectively 
equal  to  the  then  given  lines        -  -  -  20 

Plate  IV. — Problems     ...         -  •  ib. 

Prob.  11.  The  side  of  an  equilateral  triangle  being  given, 

to  describe  the  triangle  -  -  -  ib. 

Prob.  12.  To  describe  a  square,  the  sides  of  which  shall 

be  equal  to  a  given  right  line       ...  tJ. 

Prob.  13.  To  describe  a  hexagon,  the  sides  of  which  shall 

be  equal  to  a  given  line    -  -  -  •  tb, 

Prob.  14.  To  describe  any  regular  polygon,  the  sides  of 

which  shall  be  equal  to  a  given  line         -  .  ib. 

Prob.  15.  To  inscribe  a  polygon  in  a  given  circle  .  22 

Prob.  16.  A  square  being  given  to  form  an  octagon,  of 
which  four  of  the  sides  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  shall  be  common  to  the  middle  parts  of  the 
sides  of  the  square  -  -  - 

Prob.  17.  In  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  a  hexagon  or  an 

equilateral  -  -  -  -  .23 

Prob.  18.  In  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  a  square,  or  an 

octagon  -  -  ib* 

Prob.  19.  In  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  a  pentagon  -  ib. 


CONTENTS. 


347 


Practical  problems  performed  on  the  ground, 

PAGE 

Plate  V. — Practical  problems    -  -  -  24 

Prob.  1.  To  erect  a  perpendicular  from  a  given  point  to 

a  right  line,  of  a  tape  or  string     -  -  -  ih, 

Prob,  2.  To  erect  a  perpendicular  at  or  near  the  end  of 

a  right  line,  by  means  of  a  tape  -  -  ih, 

Prob.  3.  Another  method  -  -  -  -  25 

The  same  figure  -  .  .  .  •  ih, 

Prob.  4.  To  describe  the  segment  of  a  circle  to  any  length, 

and  perpendicular  height  -  .  •  ih 

Prob.  5.  To  describe  a  semi-elliptic  arch  to  any  length 
and  height  with  compasses 

Plate  VI. — Practical  problems  -  -  .  - 

Prob.  6.  Any  three  straight  lines  being  given  to  find  a 

fourth,  proportional  -  -  -  .  ih, 

Prob.  7.  To  divide  a  line  in  the  same  proportion  as  ano- 
ther is  divided      -  •  •  .  .  28 

Prob.  8.  Any  distance  being  given  in  feet  and  inches  of  a 
part  of  a  drawing,  to  divide  a  given  length  of 
a  similar  part  of  another  drawing  into  feet  and 
inches,  so  as  to  form  a  proportional  scale  -  ih. 

Prob.  9.  A  drawing  being  given  without  a  scale  to  pro- 
portion, another  having  the  dimension  or  extent  of 
some  part  of  ihe  intended  drawing  .  29 

Prob.  10.  To  draw  a  diagonal  scale        -  -  30 


348 


CONTEiNTS. 


CARPENTRY. 


PAGE 

Section  1. 

Definition  - 

31 

2. 

Tools  ..... 

to. 

3. 

Ol  saws       .           .          .          .  - 

io. 

4. 

ine  axe      -          -          -          -  . 

O. 

The  adze     ...  . 

66 

c 
O. 

1  he  socket  chisel     .  . 

lb 

•y 
/ . 

The  firmer  chisel     -  - 

«54 

Q 

o« 

The  ripping  chisel  .... 

Jit, 
to. 

Ihe  gimlet  .... 

ib. 

lU. 

ihe  auger  ..... 

35 

11. 

Ihe  gauge  .... 

36 

12. 

The  level  .... 

ib. 

13. 

To  adjust  the  level  ... 

37 

14. 

The  plumb  rule  .... 

38 

15. 

Ihe  hammer  .... 

39 

16. 

The  mallet             -          .          -  »  - 

40 

17. 

The  beetle  or  mawl  ... 

ib. 

18. 

The  crow              -          .          .  - 

ib. 

19. 

The  ten-foot  rod  - 

ib. 

20. 

The  hook  pin          -          -          -  - 

41 

21. 

The  carpenter's  square  ... 

42 

22. 

Operations   -  ... 

ib. 

23. 

To  join  two  pieces  which  are  to  form  four 

angles,  and  the  surfaces  of  one  piece  or  both 
parallel  and  perpendicular  to  those  of  the  other  43 


CONTENTS. 


349 

PAGF 


Section  24.  To  join  one  piece  of  timber  to  another,  to 
form  two  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  the 
surfaces  of  the  one  to  be  parallel  and  perpen- 
dicular to  those  of  the  other,  and  to  be  quite 
immoveable,  when  the  standing  piece  is  pulled  . 
in  a  direction  of  its  length,  while  the  cross  piece 
is  held  still     -  -  -  .  .44 

26.  Another  method     -  -  -  -  i&. 

26.  To  notch  one  piece  of  timber  to  another,  or 
join  the  two,  so  as  to  form  one  right  angle,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  equally  strong,  in  re- 
spect to  each  other     ....  45 

27.  To  fix  one  piece  of  timber  to  another,  form- 
ing two  oblique  angles,  so  that  the  standing 

piece  cannot  be  drawn  out  of  the  transverse    .  ib. 

28.  To  cut  a  rebated  notch  in  the  end  of  a 
scantling  or  piece  of  wood      ...  45 

29.  To  cut  a  grooved  notch,  or  socket  in  a  piece 

of  timber       .  -  .  .  -  ib. 

30.  To  cut  a  tenon      -  -  .  •  ib, 

31.  To  frame  one  piece  of  timber  at  right  angles 
to,  and  at  any  distance  from,  either  end  of 
another,  both  pieces  being  of  the  same  quality  46 

32.  To  join  two  timbers  by  mortise  and  tenon,  at 
a  right  angle,  so  that  the  one  shall  not  pass  the 
breadth  of  the  other    -  •  •  -  48 

Nos.  21  &  22 


I 


PAGE 

Section  33.  Of  foundations  and  timbers  in  joisting  and 

walling          -----  49 

34.  Stud  work  and  plaster  buildings      ►          -  51 

35.  Description  of  a  table  of  scantling  .           -  62 

36.  The  table  of  bearing  posts            -          -  53 

37.  Observations  on  the  table             .          -  ib. 

38.  Table  of  girders     ....  55 

39.  Table  of  bridging  joists      -          .          •  ih. 

40.  Table  of  binding  joists       ...  56 

41.  Table  of  beams      .  ib. 

42.  Table  of  principal  rafters   -          .          -  57 

43.  Table  of  purlines              ...  ib, 

44.  Observations         -          ...  58 

45.  Table  of  small  rafters        -          -          a  ih. 
Abstract  of  the  building  act,  so  far  as  regards  tho  car. 

penter  -  -  -  -  - 

Plate  VII.— Tools       -          ....  60 

VIII.  — Dove-tailing,  notching,  &c.         -  .61 

IX.  — Flooring     ...          -          .  62 

X.  — Girder  joists,  scarfing,  &c.             -          -  64 

XI.  — Framing  for  a  wooden  house  .  .  65 
Law  regulating  buildings  in  the  city  of  New-York  -  67 
Lien  Law  •  .  -  .  .  .76 
Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  carpentry         -  78 


CONTENTS. 


351 


JOINERY. 

PAGE 

Section   1.  Definition            .          .         .          .  o7 

2.  The  bench           ....  88 

3.  Joiner's  tools         ....  89 

4.  Definitions           .          -          •          .  90 

5.  Tiie  jack  plane     -  -  -91 

6.  To  grind  and  sharpen  the  iron       .  .93 

7.  To  fix  and  unfix  the  iron    .          .  94 

8.  To  use  the  jack  plane       -          -  ib. 

9.  The  trying  plane   ....  95 

10.  The  use  of  the  trying  plane           -          -  ib. 

11.  The  long  plane     -          -          -          .  ib. 

12.  The  jointer           ...          -  96 

13.  The  smoothing  piano         -          •          .  ib^ 

14.  Bench  planes        ....  ib, 

15.  The  compass  plane           ...  ib. 

16.  The  forkstaff  plane           -                    .  97 

17.  The  straight  blocl'                                 .  to, 

18.  The  rebate  plane              •          -          »  ib 

19.  Sinking  rebating  planes     ...  98 

20.  Of  the  moving  fillister       -  -  .99 

21.  Of  the  sash  fillister  in  general        -          .  102 

22.  The  fillister  which  throws  the  shavings  on 

the  bench       -          -          -          .          .  104 

23.  Of  the  sash  fillister  for  throwing  the  shavings 
ofi*  the  bench 


353 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Section  24.  Rebating  planes  without  a  fence    -          -  105 

25.  Skew-mouthed  rebating  plane        -          •  ib. 

26.  Square-mouthed  rebating  planes     -          -  106 

27.  Side  rebating  planes         ...  ib. 

28.  The  plough          ....  107 

29.  Dado  grooving  plane        -          •          -  108 

30.  Moulding  planes    -          -          -          m  ib, 

31.  The  bead  plane     -          .          -          -  109 

32.  Asnipesbill  -  -  .  .110 

33.  Hollows  and  rounds          .          -          .  Ill 

34.  Stock  and  bits       .          -          -          «  112 

35.  The  centre  bit       -  -  -  .113 

36.  Countersinks        •                    •          .  ib, 

37.  Rimers      -  -  -  .  .114 

38.  The  taper  shell  bit           ...  ib- 

39.  The  brad-awl        ....  ib. 

40.  Chisels  in  general                      -          -  115 

41.  The  firmer  chisel             -          .          -  116 

42.  The  mortise  chisel           ...  ib, 

43.  The  gouge           -          -         -  ib, 

44.  The  drawing  knife            -          .  117 

45.  Of  saws  in  general           .          .  ib 

46.  The  ripping  saw    .          .          •          •  ib, 

47.  The  half  ripper     .          -                   ,  il8 

48.  The  hand  saw       ....  ib, 

49.  The  pannel  saw               -          .          •  ib, 

50.  The  tenon  saw      -         ...  it. 


CONTENTS. 

353 

PAGE 

Section  51.  The  sash  saw        -          .  - 

119 

52.  The  dovetail  saw  ... 

ih. 

53.  Tho  compass  saw 

ih. 

54.  The  key-hole  or  turning  saw 

ih. 

55.  The  hatchet 

120 

56.  The  square  ... 

ih. 

57.  To  prove  a  square 

121 

58.  The  bevel 

ih. 

59.  The  gauge  . 

ih. 

60.  Tho  mortise  gauge 

ih. 

61.  The  side  hook 

ib. 

62.  Th3  mitre  box  - 

123 

63.  The  shooting  block 

ib. 

64.  The  straight  edge 

ih. 

65.  Winding  sticks      -          .  - 

ih. 

60.  The  mitre  square 

124 

Plate  XIL--Tools  .... 

125 

XIII.— Tools  .... 

126 

XIV.— Mouldings 

127 

XV.— -Ditto  .... 

129 

XVI. — Mouldings  of  doors 

130 

XVII.— Ditto  - 

131 

XVIII.— Ditto  .... 

132 

XIX. — Mouldings  for  sashes  *ind  cornic3S 

133 

XX. — To  describe  the  scrool  of  a  hand-rail 

155 

XXI. — Dog-legged  stairs 

158 

XXII.  —Geometrical  stairs 

165 

a54 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Section  71.  Definitions  .         -  .133 

72.  To  make  a  straight  edge   .         -         -  134 

73.  To  face  a  piece  of  stuff     -  •  .135 

74.  To  shoot  the  edge  of  a  board         -  -  136 

75.  To  join  two  boards  together  -  137 

76.  To  join  any  number  of  boards,  edge  to  edge, 

with  glue,  so  as  to  form  one  board      -  .  ih. 

77.  To  square  and  try-up  a  piece  of  stuff        -  138 

78.  To  try-up  a  piece  of  stuff  all  round  -  ib, 

79.  To  rebate  a  piece  of  stuff  .  .139 

80.  To  rebate  across  the  grain     nn    -  -  141 

81.  To  frame  two  pieces  of  stuff  together        -  ib, 

82.  Boarding  floors      ....  144 

83.  Hanging  of  shutters  to  be  cut        -  -  146 

84.  Hanging  of  doors  -  -  -  m  ih. 

85.  To  scribe  one  piece  of  board  or  3tuff  to 
another         -  -  -  -  -  147 

86.  Doors       -         -  '       -         -         .  i&. 

87.  Stairs  148 

88.  Dog-legged  stairs  -  -  -  .149 

89.  Bracket  stairs        -  -  .  .153 

90.  Geometrical  stairs  -  •  -  154 
Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  joinery  •         -  166 


CONTENTS. 
BRICKLAYING. 


PAGE 


i>^CdlUIl    X«   X^cllIllllUIl       -                »                 ■  " 

174 

2*  List  of  walling  tools 

175 

3.  List  of  tools  used  in  tiling 

ib. 

4.  The  brick  trowel     .          -  - 

ib. 

5.  Thp  hammpr  ... 

v»      X  iiw   lidlllillUl  ... 

ib. 

a    Thp  nliimVi  nil**  ... 

ib. 

7.  The  level 

17G 

ib. 

9.  The  rod  .... 

ih 

10.  The  lointino"  riilfi      .            _  _ 

ih 

•  w. 

XX*   xncjuiiiicr                •             •  • 

ih 

T^no  /*r>mn;*GQAa            _                _  • 
X^a    X  11c  CUIIjpdosc&i            •                "  ■ 

ih. 

13   Thp  raker  . 

177 

14   Thp  hod      ...  - 

ih. 

15»  The  line  pins          •          -  • 

^1 

»  zo 

16.  The  rammer  ... 

ib. 

17.  The  iron  crow  and  pick  axe 

178 

18.  The  grinding  stone 

ib. 

19.  The  banker 

ih. 

20.  The  camber  slip 

ib 

21.  The  rubbing  stone  - 

179 

22.  The  bedding  stone  - 

ib. 

23.  The  square 

ih. 

356  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Section  24.  The  bevel    -----  179 

25.  The  mould  -  -  -    .      -  •     '  ih, 

26.  The  scribe  -          -          -          -          .  iso 

27.  The  tin  saw           -  iJ), 

28.  The  brick  axe        ...          .  ib. 

29.  The  templet           -  ^-j. 

30.  The  chopping  block            -          -          -  181 

31.  The  float  stone        -          .          -          .  ih, 

32.  Of  cements            .  ih. 

33.  Description  of  bricks          ...  187 

34.  Of  foundations        ....  190 

35.  Of  walls      .....  193 

36.  Vaulting  and  groining         ...  190 
Plate  XXIIL— Tools   199 

XXIV.  — English  bond    -  ih, 

XXV.  — Flemish  bond     -          .          -          .  ;:00 

XXVI.  — Arch  work       ....  201 

XXVII.  — Piers  and  cornices      -  203 

XXVIII.  — Groins          -          -  204 

XXIX.  — Niches  .  .  -  .205 

XXX.  — Steening  wells   -          -  206 
Abstract  of  the  building  act,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  brick  • 

layer     .....  ih. 

Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  bricklayiDg  213 


CONTENTS. 


357 


MASONRY. 

PAGE 


Section  1.  Definition    .          .          -          -          -  219 

2.  Mason's  tools          ....  ih. 

3.  Of  marbles  and  stones         -          -          -  220 

4.  Stone  walls            -          -          .          -  222 

5.  Stairs         ....          .  226 

6.  Geometrical  stairs              -          -          -  227 

7.  An  account  of  the  origin  of  the  arch,  and  au- 
thors who  may  be  consulted      ...  228 

Plate  XXXI. — Problems  respecting  arches,  and  methods 

of  determining  elliptic  arches    -          -          -  230 


Prob.  1.  To  render  the  compass  method  useful,  not  only 
in  describing  the  curve,  but  in  finding  the  joints 
perpendicular  thereto,  so  as  to  form  an  arch 
which  shall  not  have  any  sensible  variation  in 
practice  from  the  true  elliptic  curve,  nor  in  the 
perpendicularity  of  the  joints  -  -  -  ib. 

2,  To  find  the  joints  of  an  elliptic  arch  at  right 
angles  to  the  curve     ....  232 

3.  To  describe  the  parabolic  arch,  and  thence  to  nn 
draw  the  joints  at  right  angles  to  tho  curve      -  ib. 

Plate  XXXII.— Strength  of  arches       .  -  -  ib. 

Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  masonry  -  235 


358 


CONTENTS. 


SLATING. 

PAGE 

Section  1.  Definition              ....  242 

Slater's  tools     -         -                   -         -         •  ib 

Explanation  of  terms  used  in  slating      ...  243 

PLASTERING. 

Section  1.  Definitions  .....  246 

2.  Plasterer's  tools      .          .  {b, 

3.  Materials     •          -          •          .          •  i5. 
Explanation  of  terms  used  in  plastering           .         .  247 

PAINTING  IN  OIL.. 

Definitions  and  tools     .....  255 

The  process  for  painting  on  new  wood  work      -          -  ib. 

The  process  for  painting  on  old  work    -          -          .  257 

A  list  of  useful  colours  for  house  painting         .          -  258 


CONTENTS. 


359 


SMITHING. 


PAGE 

Definition 

Section  1. 

Description  of  the  forge 

o 

A, 

ine  anvil    .          «         •  • 

261 

o 
o. 

Ine  tongs   -          -          -  » 

ih 

»  lO, 

4. 

Hammers    -       "  • 

«/• 

iiie  VIC©      -          •          •  • 

262 

r» 
O. 

1  he  hand  vice        -         •  " 

•  1(3. 

7, 

Ine  plyers  -          -          •  • 

ih 

Q 
O. 

Drills          .          .          •  • 

u. 

Screw  plates          .         •  - 

264 

lU. 

oncars       .         •         •  • 

ih 

11. 

Saws         .         .         •  . 

ih 

12. 

Of  forging   -          .          .  • 

to. 

13. 

Of  heats      -          •          .    ,  - 

ih. 

14. 

To  punch  a  hole  • 

267 

15. 

Filing  and  polishing 

ih. 

16. 

To  cut  thick  iron  plate  to  any  figure 

268 

17. 

Riveting  - 

269 

18. 

To  rivet  a  pin  to  a  plate  or  piece  of  iron 

ih. 

19. 

To  make  small  screw-bolts  and  nuts 

ih. 

20. 

Of  iron,  steel,  cast  steel,  &c. 

271 

Plate  XXXIII. — Perspective  view  of  a  smith's  work- 
shop, showing  a  double  forge  with  its  apparatus 
and  some  tools  in  general  use  .         .  275 


360 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

Plate  XXXIV. — Yiew  of  another  part  of  a  smith's  work- 
shop,  showing  the  work  benches  with  the  vices, 
the  drill  in  the  act  of  boring,  and  a  turning 
machine,  as  wrought  by  a  winch  and  wheel,  as 
also  by  the  foot      ^  -  -  -  -  27(5 

Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  smithing  .  277 


TURNING- 

Section  1.  Definition  and  history         ...  286 

2.  Circular  turning      ....  287 

3.  Lathes  in  general    •          .          •          •  288 

4.  The  pole  lathe  .  .  •  .  ih, 
6.  The  foot  lathe         ....  290 

6.  A  chuck      .          -          -          -          .  294 

7.  Of  tools    .  .                    -          .    ■      .  ib. 

8.  The  gouge  -          -          -          .          .  295 

9.  The  chisel             -          .          .  ih. 

10.  Right-side  tools       ....  ib. 

11.  Loft-side  tools         -  -  .  .298 

12.  Round  tools            .          -          .          .  ib. 

13.  Point  tools  -          -          -          -          .  ii. 

14.  Drills   ib. 

ir>.  Inside  tools            ....  297 

16.  Screw  tools            .          .          .          •  ib. 

17.  Flat  tools     -          .          •          .         \  ib. 


CONTENTS.  361 

PAGE 

Section  18.  Square  tools  ...  -  297 

19.  Triangular  tools      ....  298 

20.  Turning  gravers      •  -  -  .  ib 

21.  Parting  tools  -  .  -  »  ib 

22.  Callipers     .....  t6 

23.  Description  of  plates,  with  various  methods 
of.turning     ....  -  299 

Plate  XXXV.— The  pole  lathe  -  .  -  299 

Plate  XXXVI.— The  foot  lathe  .  .         -  300 

Section  24.  Elliptic  turning  ....  ib, 
Plate  XXXVII. — Exhibits  t'ne  various  positions  of  the 

chuck  for  turning  elliptical  work,  &c.  •  •  302 
Plate  XXXVIII. — Shows  the  relations  between  the  fore- 
going diagram  and  the  ch«ck  ...  904 
Plate  XXXIX.  — Viev/  of  a  turning  machine  -  .  '306 
Plate  XL.— Of  tools  .....  307 
Section  26.  To  turn  a  hollow  sphere     -          •          .  308 

27.  To  turn  one  sphere  within  another  -  .  309 

28.  Conclusion           -          •          .         .  t6. 
Index  and  explanation  of  terms  used  in  turning  -  .  31 


t 


862 


CONTENTS. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

Description  of  the  Nature  of  Steam,  of  the  principle  of  the 
Steam-engine,  of  its  various  Modes  of  Construc- 
tion, and  of  its  several  Parts,  showing  how  they 


act  upon  each  other  -         -         -         -  317 

Water   818 

Heat  819 
Elastic  power  of  Steam,  Atmospheric  Pressure,  &c.  322 
Velocity  of  Steam  ....  323 
Condensation  of  Steam  -  -  -  -  324 
Mechanical  Portions  of  the  Steam-engine,  with  their  rela- 
tive bearings  to  each  other  -  -  -  325 
Newcomen*s  Engine      -  328 

The  Boiler   332 

Safety-Yalves    -         -         -         -         -  334 

Pistons  -  334 

Hemp-Packed  Pistons    -         -         -         -  335 

Metallic  Expanding  Piston       -         -         -  336 

Barton's  Lubricators      -         -         -         -  337 

Cylinder  and  Condenser  Guages  -         -         -  338 

Parallel  Motion   338 

The  aovernor    -----  339 

The  Double-acting  Engine        -         -  -  340 

The  High-pressure  Engine        _         _         -  344 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  BINDER. 


TABLE 

Showing  the  Pages  opposite  which  the  Plates  are  to  be  placed. 


GEOMETRY. 

Plate        \    ^    To  face  Page 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6  ^ 

CARPENTRY. 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 


JOINERY, 

12  j 

13  I 

14  I 

15  f 

ia| 

17  I 

18  I 

19  1 

20  I 

21  1 

22  1 


BRICKLAYING. 


16 
17 
18 
20 
24 
27 

60 
61 
62 
64 
65 

125 
126 
127 
129 
130 
131 
132 
133 
165 
158 
165 


Plate 


To  face  Page 


23  I 

24  j 

25  I 

26  I 

27  I 

28  I 

29  1 
39  1 


MASONRY 

31  I  . 

32  I  . 


SMITHING. 


33 
34 


TURNING. 


35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 


199 
199 
200 
201 
203 
204 
205 
206 


230 
232 


275 
276 


299 
300 
302 
304 
306 
307 


/ 


i 


